To: Self-Directed Learning Colleagues
From: Roger Hiemstra (Feel free to send me an
electronic message with your comments,
suggestions, etc..)
Subj: Micro-components for Success in Working
with the Self-Directed Learner - A paper delivered at the First World
Conference on Self-Directed Learning, September 14-17, 1997, Montreal, Canada
The following ideas and resource materials
are premised on ideas about empowering learners that have emanated from some of
the research on self-directed learning (SDL). Much of this research in North
America during the past 25 years has demonstrated that most adult learners
prefer to take considerable responsibility for their own learning. Yet, many
traditional teaching and training situations limit opportunities for such
personal involvement because control over content or process remains in the
hands of experts, designers, or teachers who depend primarily on didactic
approaches.
I have spent considerable time during the
past twenty plus years conducting or supervising research related to
self-directed learning. A summary statement regarding much of what we know
about self-directed learning is shown on the last page. I've also published
various related articles, book chapters, monographs, and books on the topic
(see the references section on the last page pertaining to some of these
sources).
One of the initial responses I made to this
apparent disparity between what SDL research has demonstrated and much of
current teaching or training practice was the development of what my colleague
Burt Sisco and I call the individualized instructional process (Hiemstra & Sisco, 1990).
In this process we suggest that there are various ways learners can take
responsibility for their own learning without leading to anarchy in the
learning setting.
Some of our critics suggest that the process
we advocate will not work with their particular teaching areas because the
content is controlled by organizational requirements, must be taught in a
particular sequence, is too advanced for novice learners, etc. We contend that
the process of providing opportunities for learners to assume some control is
equally as important, if not often more important, than the actual content
because of the ever declining half-life of much of knowledge, the value in
helping learners learn how to learn, etc.
What I have been wrestling with recently is
thinking through various ways that learners can assume increasing control over
certain aspects of their learning process, in other words become more
empowered. I am in the process of developing two related products. One is a
framework for identifying various teaching and learning process
micro-components in which learners can make their own decisions. The next two
pages outlines my thinking to date. The second is a resource guide of various
techniques, tools, and resources that the self-directed learner can use to plan
personal learning efforts, enhance personal skills, or obtain new knowledge. It
can be found on my web site and it shows various techniques, tools, or
resources displayed within six categories. A work in progress, I invite any
of you to add to it.
Thus far I have reviewed related literature,
talked to colleagues, reflected on my own teaching, and thought about what such
resources should look like if they are to be of value to learners, themselves,
or to those wishing to enhance the self-directed learning skills of learners.
This material most likely will not be very helpful to you at this early point
in its development, although it does give you an idea of the kinds of resources
that are possible. As you are one of the very first groups of people to see
this work in progress, I would very much appreciate any feedback you care to
give me. Does it make sense in the organizational schemes I am suggesting? Are
there some obvious micro-components to using self-directed approaches that I am
missing? Please feel free to contact me with any of your feedback. I will be
very grateful and your advice will help me to make it a more useful resource.
HELPING
LEARNERS TAKE RESPONSIBILITY FOR SELF-DIRECTED ACTIVITIES
Roger
Hiemstra
Research has clearly demonstrated that adults
prefer to assume some responsibility for their own learning. However, some
instructors and even some learners resist this notion for various reasons. One
of my current projects involves developing a framework of teaching and learning
process components to provide multiple opportunities for learners to make their
own decisions. The following represents my work thus far.
Exhibit 1. Aspects of the Learning Process
Where Learners Can Assume Some Control
1. Assessing Needs
1.1 Choice of individual
techniques
1.2 Choice of group
techniques
1.3 Controlling how
needs information is reported
1.4 Controlling how
needs information is used
2. Setting goals
2.1 Specifying
objectives
2.2 Determining the
nature of the learning
2.2.1 Deciding on competency
or mastery learning -vs- pleasure or interest learning
2.2.2 Deciding on
the types of questions to be asked and answered during learning efforts
2.2.3 Determining
emphases to be placed on the application of the knowledge or skill acquired
2.3 Changing
("evolution") objectives over the period of a learning experience
2.4 Use of learning
contracts
2.4.1 Making
various learning choices or selecting from various options
2.4.2 Decisions on
how to achieve objectives
3. Specifying learning content
3.1 Decisions on
adjusting levels of difficulty
3.2 Controlling
sequence of learning material
3.3 Choices on
knowledge types (psychomotor, cognition, affective)
3.4 Decision on
theory -vs- practice or application
3.5 Deciding on
level of competency
3.6 Decisions on
actual content
3.6.1 Choices on
financial or other costs involved in the learning effort
3.6.2 Deciding on
the help, resources, or experiences required for the content
3.7 Prioritizing the
learning content
3.8 Deciding on the
major planning type, such as self, other learners, experts, etc.
4. Pacing the learning
4.1 Amount of time
devoted to teacher presentations
4.2 Amount of time
spent on teacher to learner interactions
4.3 Amount of time
spent on learner to learner interactions
4.4 Amount of time
spent on individualized learning activities
4.5 Deciding on pace
of movement through learning experiences
4.6 Decisions on
when to complete parts or all of the activities
5. Choosing the instructional methods,
techniques, and devices
5.1 Selection of
options for technological support and instructional devices
5.2 Choice of
instructional method or technique
5.3 Type of learning
resources to be used
5.4 Choice of
learning modality (sight, sound, touch, etc.) for determining how best to learn
5.5 Choices on
opportunities for learners, learner and teacher, small group, or large group
discussion
6. Controlling the learning environment
6.1 Decision on
manipulating physical/environmental features
6.2 Deciding to deal
with emotional/psychological impediments
6.3 Choices on ways
to confront social/cultural barriers
6.4 Opportunities to
match personal learning style preferences with informational presentations
7. Promoting introspection, reflection, and
critical thinking
7.1 Deciding on
means for interpreting theory
7.2 Choices on means
for reporting/recording critical reflections
7.3 Decision on use
of reflective practitioner techniques
7.4 Opportunities
provided for practicing decision-making, problem solving, and policy
formulation
7.5 Making
opportunities to seek clarity or to clarify ideas available
7.6 Choices on
practical ways to apply new learnings
8. Instructor's/trainer's role
8.1 Choice of the
role or nature of didactic (lecturing) presentations
8.2 Choice of the
role or nature of socratic (questioning) techniques to be used
8.3 Choice of the
role or nature of facilitative (guiding the learning process) procedures
9. Evaluating the learning
9.1 Choice on the
use and type of testing
9.1.1 Deciding on
the nature and use of any reviewing
9.1.2 Opportunities
for practice testing available
9.1.3 Opportunities
for retesting available
9.1.4 Opportunities
available for choosing type of testing, if any, to be used
9.1.5 Decisions on
weight given to any test results
9.2 Choices on type
of feedback to be used
9.2.1 Deciding on
type of instructor's feedback to learner
9.2.2 Deciding on
type of learner's feedback to instructor
9.3 Choices on means
for validating achievements (learnings)
9.4 Deciding on
nature of learning outcomes
9.4.1 Choosing type
of final products
9.4.1.1 Deciding
how evidence of learning is reported or presented
9.4.1.2
Opportunities made available to revise and resubmit final products
9.4.1.3 Decisions
on the nature of any written products
9.4.2 Decision on
weight given to final products
9.4.3 Deciding on
level of practicality of outcomes
9.4.3.1
Opportunities to relate learning to employment/future employment
9.4.3.2
Opportunities to propose knowledge application ideas
9.4.4 Deciding on
nature of the benefits from any learning
9.4.4.1
Opportunities to propose immediate benefits versus long-term benefits
9.4.4.2
Opportunities to seek various types of benefits or acquisition of new skills
9.5 Deciding on the
nature of any follow-up evaluation
9.5.1 Determining
how knowledge can be maintained over time
9.5.2 Determining
how concepts are applied
9.5.3 Opportunities
provided to review or redo material
9.5.4 Follow-up or
spin-off learning choices
9.6 Opportunities
made available to exit learning experience and return later if appropriate
9.7 Decision on the
type of grading used or completion rewards to be received
9.8 Choosing the
nature of any evaluation of instructor and learning experience
9.9 Choices on the
use and/or type of learning contracts
References
Brockett, R. G., & Hiemstra, R. (1991). Self-direction in learning:
Perspectives in theory, research, and practice. London, UK: Routledge.
Hiemstra, R. (1991). Self-directed
learning for older adults. In American Association of Retired Persons, Resourceful
aging: Today and tomorrow (Volume V, Lifelong Education, Conference
Proceedings), Washington, D.C.: American Association of Retired Persons, 1991.
Hiemstra, R. (1992a). An analysis of Stephen
Brookfield -- Self-directed learning: From theory to practice. In G. J.
Confessore & S. J. Confessore (Eds.), Guideposts to self-directed
learning, King of Prussia, PA: Organization Design and Development.
Hiemstra, R. (1992b). Individualizing the
instructional process: What we have learned from two decades of research on
self-direction in learning. In H. B. Long and Associates, Self-directed
learning: Application and research. Norman, OK: Oklahoma Research Center
for Continuing Professional and Higher Education, University of Oklahoma, 1992.
Hiemstra, R., & Brockett, R. G. (1994a). From behaviorism to humanism:
Incorporating self-direction in learning concepts into the instructional design
process. In H. B. Long & Associates, New ideas about self-directed
learning. Norman, OK: Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional
and Higher Education, University of Oklahoma.
Hiemstra, R., & Brockett, R. G. (Eds.).
(1994b). Overcoming
resistance to self-direction in learning (New Directions for Adult and
Continuing Education). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hiemstra, R. (1996). Self-directed adult
learning. In DeCorte & Weinert (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of
developmental and instructional psychology, Oxford: Elsevier Science. Also
in A. Tuijnman (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of adult education and
training (second edition), Oxford: Elsevier Science, 1996
Hiemstra, R., & Sisco, B. (1990). Individualizing instruction for
adult learners: Making learning personal, empowering, and successful.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
SELF-DIRECTED
LEARNING--SUMMARY STATEMENT
Adults spend considerable time learning at
their own initiative. This is commonly called self-directed learning.
Considerable related research has been completed in the past three decades.
Self-direction can be defined in terms of an
adult assuming personal responsibility for related decisions and actions. In
terms of learning, the concept encompasses an individual's personality
characteristics and those instructional activities or resources which may
impact on a person. Thus, self-direction in learning recognizes the
instructional process designed to facilitate self-direction and those factors
predisposing an adult to accept responsibility for learning-related actions.
Self-directed learning approaches are
becoming increasingly recognized as ways of obtaining necessary information
outside formal organizations. For example, in the workplace busy employees can
learn necessary skills through self-study. The concept also has generated
controversy, such as absence of a consistent theory base, some confusion over
the term's meaning, and inadequate measurement devices.
Research needed to further develop the
concept include efforts to refine existing conceptual models, finding ways to
incorporate computer technology into self-directed learning, determining how
quality of such learning can be measured, and determining appropriate roles for
educators and educational organizations.
