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Chapter
Two
Basic Elements in Planning and
Practicing Research
Huey B.
Long
Roger
Hiemstra
In this chapter we are concerned
with practical matters rather than with the philosophical and theoretical
issues to which the other chapters are addressed. Our primary purpose is
to help the novice researcher, or graduate student, plan, practice, and report
research. But even though the chapter focuses on procedures for organizing
and pursuing a research question at a basic level--specifically, with
developing theses and dissertations--we have also identified certain
properties common to the planning and practice of many kinds of research,
commonalities that should make the chapter instructive to a variety of
individuals, not only to students but to administrators, to staff members
of agencies who are interested in problem-solving research related to the
agency's mission, and to people in government bureaus and special research
institutes. Ac-
Page 23
cordingly,
we discuss some basic characteristics of research being done in the numerous
adult education graduate programs, describe a few of the expectations professors
of adult education have concerning research, and share a few writing
tips.
The major commonalities discussed in the following pages are the
research needs of both adult educators and the field of adult education,
the approach to research, and the preparation of a proposal and a
dissertation.
Research
Needs of Adult Educators
Educators generally agree that graduate study should contribute
to one's research competence, competence that is achieved through a combination
of academic experiences, including formal courses on such topics as statistics,
research methodology, and computer science. However, such courses in
themselves are incomplete, and thus the skills and knowledge acquired in
them must be integrated in another framework. Formal research, as required
for a thesis or dissertation, provides that integrative framework wherein
the student can learn to develop proposals, work out strategies for analyzing
and interpreting data, and practice report writing.
Besides competence, graduate students also need an awareness
of their assumptions and biases, and doing research should help them develop
this. One of the important assumptions they should recognize, even if it
is not stated by many of the researchers who hold it, is that past events
in nature will recur provided similar circumstances exist again. Even more
strongly held is the belief that such events must happen if identical
circumstances prevail. From these basic assumptions about the uniformity
and orderliness of nature have arisen three postulates: the postulates of
natural kinds, constancy, and determinism, each of which is briefly discussed
later in the chapter. For a more detailed discussion, the reader should consult
some works on the philosophy of science, such as Cohen and Nagel
(1934).
The postulate of natural kinds is as old as Aristotle. It refers
to the possibility of classifying phenomena according to similarities among
their essential structures, functions, or characteristics. Such activity
leads to the development of classes, categories, and
taxono-
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mies which help the researcher bring some order
to what may appear to be chaotic masses of data. Verner's work (1964) provides
an example of the postulate specifically applied to adult education.
Other useful examples include the Linnaean classification system in botany,
the periodic table in chemistry, and Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives
(Bloom and others, 1956).
Another important postulate that undergirds
most research is that of constancy. Although researchers do not often find
opportunities to expound on this postulate, it is significant because
it suggests that natural phenomena are sufficiently stable to maintain essential
attributes under given conditions or circumstances for a stated period of
time. The postulate of constancy implies relative persistence and organization
in nature.
And according to the third basic postulate, determinism, all natural
phenomena are determined, that is, they are caused by some agent or event.
The determinist rules out chance and accident as legitimate causes. An experiment
designed to predict a phenomenon clearly depends on this postulate. So the
researcher, especially the graduate student, needs to be aware of the premises
underlying his efforts.
The practice of research at the graduate level also contributes
to an understanding of theory and its role in research. Theory relates to
inquiry in two distinct ways: deductively and inductively. When theory
is the point of departure for the investigation, research proceeds
deductively, usually by testing hypotheses. In the second way, observation
and inductive analysis contribute to the evolvement of theory. The experimental
research design is most often theory-based and tests various parts of a specific
theory deductively. In contrast, the grounded-theory research strategy
generates conclusions or hypotheses that may contribute to the development
of theory.
Because of various professional needs of the adult educator, requiring
him or her to do graduate research is a reasonable proposition (Aker,
1962). Many persons enter the field of adult education following practice
in another field. And since often the jobs they take in the field do not
require an advanced degree, these entrants frequently have had a good deal
of practical experience but limited academic preparation. Consequently, they
probably lack
apprecia-
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25
tion not only for the theory and philosophy
of adult education but for research theories and methods. The adult educator
must be a pragmatic philosopher and a philosophical pragmatist. Such a role
derives great strength from experience in research.
Furthermore, we dispute the claim that it is either desirable or
wise to separate research from practice. In the broadest sense we see all
adult educators as practicing researchers and research-oriented
practitioners. The roles are complementary, and efforts to divide them yield
sour fruit. Although in a narrower sense, some adult educators produce more
research than others and some consume more than others, most will be engaged
in research to some degree. Such research may not be as formally organized
and as complex as that done for a dissertation; it may be simply the orderly
treatment of data to answer questions. Yet even when it takes this simplified
form, the researcher is confronted with concerns about spurious data and
validity. And if the adult educator is primarily a consumer of research,
he still needs at least a basic understanding of the inquiry process and
of how to critically evaluate studies conducted by
others.
Thus all adult educators, including those whose functions do not
involve the practice of formal research, can profit from research training
at the graduate level. Even an individual who
consistently avoids all semblance of overt data collection, if there be such
a person, is influenced by the research of others. The practitioner
who narrowly limits his attention to doing things and does not read research
reports is still affected by research, because funds are sometimes appropriated
as a result of research findings, and such appropriations may strengthen
or weaken a specific adult education program. Though some adult educators
may never write a research publication after they have obtained their doctorates,
it is difficult to. imagine their completely withdrawing
from reading. Complete withdrawal is about the only way to escape reading
about some kind of research, even if the reports are just polls published
in the news papers or popular magazines.
Thus far we have discussed how research training can help to satisfy
Some of the adult educator's professional needs.
To close this section we want to point out another need: to consult with
other specialists. Such consultation is often productive, as it brings the
adult educator into contact with scholars from other
disciplines
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or into closer
contact with other adult educators with different interests and skills.
Other specialists not only have different ways of asking research questions
but also they utilize different methods of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting
evidence. Either kind of experience should be valuable to both parties as
well as to the field of adult education, in which diversity is necessary.
Just as it would be restrictive for all researchers concerned with questions
related to adult education to subscribe to identical research methods, so
would it be undesirable for all researchers to specialize in one kind of
data analysis. Fortunately, such a prospect is unlikely. The analysis, like
the research method, should be appropriate to the question, the sample, and
the design.
Research
Needs of the Field
Since graduate programs are a major stimulus to adult education research,
the continued development of the field is related to the quality of graduate
research activities. Those activities potentially have both a short-run
and a long-run value. The short-term benefit derives from the immediate
production of research and its subsequent contribution to knowledge and practice.
The long-term benefit is the collection of research skills that the graduate
can apply to adult education questions for years after he leaves the
university.
The preceding view places a pragmatic value on graduate research
and the skills developed by the experience. As noted by Long in Chapter One,
individuals whose professional responsibilities include the planning and
delivery of a variety of service programs represent a range of interests
and needs. Graduate instruction should be broad enough to help develop the
philosophy, skill, and knowledge necessary to meet many of those needs.
It would seem that Jensen's five characteristic needs of adult educators
(1964, pp. 106107) are shared by many other people in the helping
professions who do not strictly consider themselves to be adult educators
and that all these individuals require a basic research competence to
perform their occupational tasks. For example, Jensen defines the need
to be able to analyze a variety of factors and make
competent
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27
decisions---skills
that are required and enhanced by the practice of
research.
Thus, the justification for the university requirement that adult
education students develop research skills is clear. If the adult educator
is to be professionally competent, it is highly desirable, if not absolutely
necessary, that he have such abilities. Similarly, such capacities seem to
be required among the professional leaders in the field if adult education
is to continue to develop as a field of practice.
Approach
to Research
What are the structural outlines of the research process? What are
the skills to be practiced? Although researchers in adult education would
undoubtedly provide different specific answers to these questions, certain
areas of agreement are general enough to warrant discussion here. Even so,
we want to emphasize the general nature of this discussion, lest the reader
develop the idea that there is universal agreement on the following structural
elements: selecting the problem, stating the problem, reviewing the literature,
and designing the research.
Selecting the
Problem.
This phase is often a period of struggle in which the budding
researcher--a student or agency employee-struggles to find a suitable
topic. In the selection process some are highly promiscuous, entranced by
a different topic daily. Other novices choose a topic so broad that the narrowing
process is both painful and difficult. Sometimes the researcher-to-be is
spared this dissonance: the major advisor or employer assigns the
topic.
Most adult education professors encourage students to select their
own topic, giving them a great deal of freedom and responsibility. In the
case of an employee, the problem to be studied may be dictated by circumstance
as well as by a supervisor's directive. And the research problem may differ
from that given to or chosen by the student in being more practical, that
is, concerned with obtaining sufficient evidence to continue, discontinue,
or modify a program.
Almost any topic can be worthwhile provided the problem is defined
adequately. Conversely, almost any subject might be unacceptable if the
problem is inadequately posed, if an improper
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conceptual
framework is used, or
if the boundaries of
the research are inappropriate. Novice researchers are frequently
impatient with the identification process, and their problems are poorly
conceived. They fail to state the problem clearly, overlook major variables,
select a problem beyond their capacity to handle,
or lack a sound theoretical framework (Van Dalen,
1973).
The identification and selection
of research problems
require sufficient intelligence to isolate and understand the elements
contributing to that selection. And the investigator should ask numerous
questions, including personal ones, before he finally selects the problem.
The following have been suggested by Van Dalen (1973):
--Is the investigator really interested in the problem but free from
strong biases?
--Does the investigator possess the necessary skills, abilities, and
background knowledge to study this problem?
--Does the investigator have access to the necessary equipment,
space, and subjects to conduct the investigation?
--Will solving the problem contribute to knowledge in the
field?
--What kind of
application may be made
of the findings?
--Are the research tools and techniques sufficiently refined and reliable
for the conclusions of
the investigation to be of
value?
--Will the investigation contribute to the development
of other studies?
One good rule for researchers to follow, if they can, is to pick
a topic of great interest
to them. It may be related to a burning question they have had but heretofore
had always been reluctant to ask. It may emerge from their past work
or educational experience.
It could evolve out of the
graduate training experience. It could focus
on some problem that the
student believes can be solved through adult education. Or perhaps it is
directly related to a program of
an agency or institution.
We also suggest that researchers pick a topic closely related to
their future goals. Ample reasons exist for choosing a topic that may stimulate
professional development, such as by contributing knowledge to a specialized
area or by building a reputation
for skill in a certain subject. There is some danger, perhaps, in
being
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conspicuously
opportunistic; but why select a topic in which no
one is interested? Topic selection, doubtlessly, is related
to how widely read the researcher is, for this is not a sterile, isolated
process. It is helped along by experience, by observation, and by a review
of the literature. The literature
.can reveal what kinds
of questions others are asking as well as what areas are being
neglected. (We return to
the literature review later in this chapter.)
An additional observation is that the selection
of the research topic can reveal both the maturity and the
competence of the student.
If the student is too limited in experience, maturity,
or exposure to the field, he may fail to recognize many
of the significant problems
to which research may provide solutions. At the same time, if the person
has poor skills, he may be unable to choose wisely among the problems to
be studied. Given either circumstance, the investigator probably is not yet
ready to pursue a thesis or
dissertation problem (Hillway, 1974).
Cohen and Nagel (1934) have suggested that the ability to perceive
in an experience the basis of a
problem whose resolution contributes to the solution
of other problems is not a common talent. The difficulty rests
in part in the absence of any
standard procedure which can be followed by an individual who wishes to ask
significant questions. These authors also noted that a problem cannot
even be stated unless the investigator is familiar with the subject matter
of the
problem.
Stating the
Problem.
After the investigator has determined that the problem to be studied
has enough social value to warrant the research and is sure that his personal
skills are sufficient to handle it, the researcher has to state the problem
effectively. Before meaningful inquiry can begin, some limitations must be
imposed on it. In the very
early stages of inquiry the
research problem may be broad and vague. But at some point, arrived at through
continuous revision, the problem must be sharply focused. Global problems
can not be solved in a general fashion. The researcher must state the Problem
so that it is manageable. Cole and Glass (1977), Long (1977), and Pennington
and Green (1976) provide acceptable illustrations
of problem statements in which the purpose
of the study is
explicit.
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30
Two procedures will help the researcher develop the problem statement.
As the objective of the statement is to make the topic very specific, the
investigator may ask, What do I have to discover?
Precisely what problem do I want to solve? Cole and Glass (1977, p. 76) seemed
to follow this strategy: "The purpose of this experimental study was
to determine the effects of adult participant involvement in program
planning on the dependent variables of achievement, information, retention
and attitude." The other procedure is to turn the topic into a question
instead of a statement. In this form, it requires a specific answer, and
then finding the answer becomes the purpose of the study (Hillway, 1974).
In the Cole and Glass example, the investigators could easily have asked,
Is participation in program planning related to
achievement, information, retention, and attitude? Or, Will the presence
of participant involvement in program planning affect achievement, information,
retention, and attitude?
The evolution of the problem statement is likely to vary among
individuals according to personal characteristics that influence their
mode of thinking. However, regardless of.
the procedures, each individual must eventually
reduce the problem to dimensions that can be understood, communicated, and
organized. The researcher who cannot describe and delimit the task
in parsimonious terms will experience difficulty in completing the
study.
The problem statement should contain action words that are clear
and that can be implemented unambiguously. Words that are easily understood
include mathematical relationships, differences, results, and change.
Words that can cause problems, and that usually require careful operational
definitions, include characteristics, analysis, and examine.
Several sources, especially Hillway (1974), Kerlinger (1964), Tuckman
(1972), and Van Dalen (1973), provide valuable discussions on how to develop
problem statements and write operational definitions.
In summary, here are four rules that should be helpful in determining
the final definition of a problem:
1.
The
problem selected should be neither too vague nor too broad in
scope.
2.
It
should be stated as a question that requires a definite
answer.
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3.
The
limit and scope of the problem should be carefully stated to eliminate all
elements that will not be considered in the study.
4.
all the special
terms that are used in the problem statement should be
defined.
Reviewing the
Literature.
We cannot overstress the need to review carefully the literature
related to a research topic. The task is too often approached too hastily.
A thorough review can provide an understanding of the significance of the
problem in relation to theory, some clues to appropriate design and methods,
and a feeling for how the research will extend knowledge on a given topic.
The value of the hours spent in the library. is
difficult to estimate, but suffice it to observe that such time is usually
well spent. Knowing what is already known about a subject is both a necessary
step in research and an index to the quality of the forthcoming study. The
literature search, however, is complicated by the rapid expansion of information
that characterizes many fields. As a result, the reviewer may have difficulty
providing a thorough and succinct summary. Nonetheless, the researcher is
challenged to become familiar with the appropriate literature in order to
accomplish several objectives. The most obvious one is to determine whether
the problem or question has already been resolved. A second objective is
to obtain helpful ideas concerning the topic. And a third is to find appropriate
research procedures.
An important beginning step for the researcher is to become familiar
with the various sources of potentially useful information: journals, indexes,
periodic literature, government publications, Dissertation Abstracts,
and the Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) materials are
only a few of the sources to be explored. University library staffs
can help the reviewer find and use such materials.
The traditional hand search recently has been augmented if not replaced
by the computer search. In many ways the two methods are similar. Both require
the early determination of key words on which the search might be focused,
and the title of the research or the research problem serves as a good source
of key words in either kind of search.
The first item on the form requesting a computer search
used
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by one university
requires the investigator to provide a concise statement of what he wants
to know. For example, "I am interested in the relationship between dogmatism
and learning among adults." The next step is to divide the statement into
logical groups stripped of adjectives, conjunctions, and unnecessary modifiers.
In the present example, there are three logical groups or concepts: 1. dogmatism,
2. learning, 3. adults. These concepts are connected
with and logic. That is, the investigator wants to retrieve citations
on dogmatism and learning and adults, not all citations on
dogmatism or learning or adults. He wants only citations indexed by all three
concepts together. The investigator also indicates the data base or bases
to be searched. In the present example the person may request a search of
Psychological Abstracts and ERIC. Searches may be either
retrospective or limited to current materials. (Additional information
on computer searches may be obtained from ERIC and universities that provide
the service.)
Some investigators combine the hand search and the computer
search at one or more stages of the process. A preliminary hand search may
be helpful in selecting key words and identifying potential data bases. The
hand search procedure may also supplement the computer procedure after
pertinent publications have been identified and reported.
The careful recording of information is crucial to success. Complete
bibliographic information, key quotations, paraphrased statements, and some
individual coding system indicating the potential use of the material
are some of the points to consider. Certainly this labor is time consuming.
And a large share of the information recorded will not be used in the
literature-review section of the research report. But a thorough review should
enlarge the researcher's appreciation and understanding of the problem,
and the result will be a more educative research experience. Most important,
the only way the student can fully comprehend the theoretical basis of the
problem is to do a thorough review.
The focus of the literature review may vary according to the research
design. For example, if an experimental research design is proposed, the
investigator will want to find information concerning theory, previous research
findings, and research method, in order
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to develop
a conceptual framework. In contrast, for a study with a historical design
the review may be limited to investigating the general outlines of the question
or topic. The bulk of such an examination may be simply a listing of
the sources to be used in the study.
Selecting the
Research
Design.
Many publications provide guidance in determining what kinds of designs
are appropriate for different kinds of research questions. Rather than
relist publications cited elsewhere in this book,
we refer the reader to the References (Adams and
Preiss, 1960; Bledsoe, 1972;
Borgatta and Bohrnstedt,
1970; Campbell and Stanley, 1963; Denzin, 1970;
McCall and Simmons, 1969; Rosenberg, 1968;
Schatzman and Strauss, 1973; Selltiz and others,
1959; Tuckman, 1972; Phillips, 1971). What more should be said to the beginning
researcher who is trying to choose an appropriate design? It is that
appropriateness is the key word. The other chapters in this book should
provide the novice with an appreciation for the unique qualities of different
research approaches suited to the broad field of adult
education.
Appropriateness also implies consistency. In other words, certain
problems may be best solved only by certain designs. The unique relationship
between the research problem and the research design needs to be reflected
in the research proposal. Moreover, researchers should employ a design which
is appropriate to their individual abilities and preferences. Although
professional consultants are usually available, the researchers themselves
may need to defend their choice of design.
New researchers tend to fail in their preliminary
conceptualizations of the data that will result from their plan. They
create elaborate schemes without considering what the data will look like.
Frequently, those researchers are surprised after months of work to find
that they have masses of data they cannot use or, equally devastating, inadequate
data on important parts of the study.
Therefore we encourage researchers to visualize their data
and
to project possible outcomes. These two processes are different but
related. The first step is to ask questions like these: What will the data
look like? Are they in quantifiable form or are they qualitative? Are they
nominal? Continuous?
Ordinal?
Do they fit
the
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statistical
analysis selected? The second step is to consider all the possible results.
Although hypotheses and theoretical considerations may suggest one particular
result, several may be possible. In many studies, for example, at least four
outcomes are possible. If the researcher has not considered each of these,
he has probably failed to conceive the theoretical dimensions of the study
adequately.
Most graduate programs in adult education include courses in statistics
and research design. Astute graduate students will enroll in these courses
early in their programs, since an understanding of research design and parametric
and non parametric statistics will prove valuable for most researchers. Even
those who turn to historical research may find a
knowledge of quantitative research helpful. However, if students are
to become serious historians, the appropriate historiography courses should
be taken. A good graduate program will provide students with ample opportunity
to practice research skills before the major test of the dissertation arrives.
In assigning preliminary research papers, professors should require writers
to follow good writing style and bibliographic style. Such writing should
be subjected to adequate reviews and criticisms to acquaint students with
their weaknesses and strengths.
The expansion of knowledge and the development of new research tools
present a continuing challenge to all scholars. Advanced students and professors
engaged in studying adult behavior are challenged to improve their competence
by adding new skills as research developments
proceed. The procedures of statistical analysis
and the application of computer technology to such analysis are two subjects
that are changing rapidly.
How much skill and knowledge of statistical procedures constitutes
the minimum for adult education researchers? A conversation with three or
more experts in experimental design and statistical analysis is likely
to reveal different preferences with regard to statistical analyses. One
likes analysis of variance, another a correlation
technique, and a third a factor analysis for the same set of data. If the
experts disagree, what options are available to the novice? As few adults
can be specialists in three fields--statistics, computer technology, and
adult education--the researcher should probably try to develop above-average
competence with the particular statistical technique that seems best
suited to the individual's research
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interests.
For many adult education studies non parametric statistical techniques are
more appropriate than parametric ones because of the different assumptions
of each and the nature of adult education samples.
Preparing
the Proposal
The first tangible activity leading to the dissertation is the
preparation of a prospectus, or research proposal. It is often initiated
when the student is beginning the last third of the course work. However,
students should not delay all consideration of the project until that time.
They should give considerable thought to the topic while they are developing
research skills, writing ability, and a knowledge
of their area of interest, in order to formulate the problem
statement.
The prospectuses vary among institutions from brief, informal,
general research plans to formal and detailed descriptions of research procedure.
Regardless of the institutional requirements, however, the quality of the
prospectus is obviously related to the quality of the completed dissertation.
Simply stated, the prospectus describes what the student proposes to do,
why he proposes to do it, where and when he proposes to do it, with
whom he proposes to accomplish the task, and how
the tasks will be accomplished. The prospectus should be more than an essay
outlining the general problem to be investigated. It should be a highly
specific document that requires the student to give critical attention to
the problem before conducting research on it. The more attention the student
pays to detail in the prospectus, the fewer difficulties she will encounter
when she begins collecting data.
The proposed research may take several forms: A case study, a historical
analysis, the development of an instrument, descriptive research, or an
experimental study. The following outline of the Items to be covered in a
prospectus constitutes a guide to what the faculty of one adult education
department expects when the prospectus is based on an experimental
design. Modifications of the outline may be required for students proposing
to use the case-study or historical method. However, we believe the general
model is appropriate to these methods.
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Basic Elements in Planning and Practicing
Research
Conceptual
Framework.
First the writer explicates the relationship among the elements
of the study-the problem, the theoretical base, and the research procedures.
Since this conceptual framework is frequently based on assumptions that have
to be explicitly recognized, the writer presents the major premises
underlying the chosen design, sample, and
instruments.
Definition of
Terms.
The writer should use regular terminology whenever possible,
keeping jargon to a minimum. Because a term may have several meanings, only
one of which is intended within a single statement of a hypothesis, the writer
needs to tell the reader exactly which meaning of the term is intended. The
writer may also need to formulate operational definitions for certain words.
For example, educational achievement may be defined in terms of a
score on an instrument, or of years of education, or of degrees held. Similarly,
what constitutes an adult has been defined differently in various studies,
as Long pointed out in Chapter One. So the investigator
must be careful to specify what he means.
Statement of
the
Hypotheses.
An experimental study must have hypotheses, preferably stated in
the null form. The level of statistical significance required to reject the
null hypotheses should also be noted at this point. (For additional comments
on hypotheses, see Long's chapter on experimental
research.)
Selection of
the
Sample.
The writer relates the selection of his population to the theoretical
framework and also indicates the method used to select the sample. For example,
if the proposed sample is a random sample, how was randomization established?
If the subjects will constitute a fortuitous sample, what led to the selection
of the fortuitous sample?
Among the first problems that confront the researcher concerning
the sample is the kind of compromise to be made. The investigator has limited
resources; hence, everything about every person cannot be observed and recorded.
The researcher must decide not only what to observe and record but how many
subjects are to be included in the observation. The longitudinal compromise
favors the intensive study of a few individuals (Bledsoe, 1972). Tough's
work on adults' learning projects (1971) provides an example of a
longitudinal compromise in adult education. And
Allerton's investigation (1974) based on
Tough's work is even more
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intensive.
We use the word compromise because the researcher is interested in
generalizability, and large samples, other things being equal, are superior
to small samples in terms of external validity. (See the chapters by Long
and Boyd for additional comments on internal and external
validity.)
Data
Collection.
In this section the researcher states in step fashion how the data
will be collected. For example, after selecting the sample, the writer may
develop a control group and an experimental group. In this part of
the proposal he discusses how he will assign subjects to each group, what
kind of treatment schedule will be followed, and how the data will be collected.
Clear descriptions of the procedures are essential if readers are to
comprehend exactly what is planned.
Instruments.
The investigator provides a section describing the instruments to
be used. For example, if the student plans to use
Rokeach's dogmatism scale, she should briefly describe
the instrument, tell how it was developed, and state how the reliability
and validity of the instrument were established (unless the validity and
reliability were discussed in the literature review
section).
Treatment of
Data.
The statistical techniques to be used to treat the data are a highly
important element and should also be included in the prospectus. The appropriate
statistical treatment should be chosen before any data are
collected.
Other
Information.
The proposal writer often includes a projected schedule for conducting
and reporting the research. Establishing deadlines beforehand is desirable
because they give the researcher goals he can work toward in certain phases
of the data collection. The investigator should also note various possible
expenses--such as the cost of travel to collect data the cost of purchasing
and duplicating instruments, and postage--and show how these will be
covered.
Policy on Human
Research.
As the number and scope
of research studies have increased, researchers have probed ever deeper and
occasionally threatened and or insulted their subjects. At the same time,
people have became more sophisticated in their reactions
to scientific work, more concerned about the moral and ethical implications.
Thus, because of the potential danger that some research with human subjects
poses and because of new demands that in-
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vestigators be accountable, the federal government
has adopted regulations concerning such research. These regulations
require universities, and other organizations and institutions that obtain
federal funds, to adopt a set of guidelines for monitoring human research.
All individuals conducting studies using human subjects should be aware of
the policies and guidelines of their institution.
Policies concerning the use of human subjects should be in line with
the American Psychological Association's "Ethical Standards in Research,"
the World Medical Association's Declaration at Helsinki, and the
"Institutional Guide to Department of Health, Education and Welfare Policy
on Protection of Human Subjects." One such institutional policy (University
of Georgia, 1975) lists fifteen different guidelines, having to do with the
scientific justification for the research, the qualifications of the
investigators, the expected benefits, the protection of the subject, the
confidentiality of personal data, informed consent, the protection
of individuals not able to exercise fully their powers of choice, and the
responsibilities of the researcher to the subject.
Review procedures usually require the investigator to file appropriate
documents with the institution or agency for review according to established
practice. Several options are available to the review committees: They may
approve the request, ask for additional information or clarification, or
refuse to approve such research. The time required for review will vary among
agencies and institutions; therefore, the researcher should become aware
of institutional practices and include sufficient time for the review in
the research schedule.
Preparing
the Dissertation
The dissertation is often viewed as the final hurdle, the
professor's last claim on the student, the last academic ritual before
graduation. Such views are unfortunate, because the writing of a dissertation
should be a highly constructive educational experience that sharpens the
skills of the student-researcher, influences attitudes, and contributes to
knowledge. If these kinds of views prevail, the experience will probably
lack such favorable characteristics. An overemphasis on the contribution
that a dissertation may make to expanding knowledge may also limit the impact
that the experience
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has on the
student's development. But with proper balance, there is no reason why the
dissertation should not be a valuable learning experience that also contributes
to knowledge.
The dissertation may be the key to the writer's future. Either the
topic or the research design employed may yield opportunities for recognition
and professional development. We know several people who were recruited for
good jobs and for consulting work as a direct result of their dissertation
research.
Outline. Here
is a typical outline for a dissertation:
Acknowledgments
Table of Contents
List of Tables
Chapter
I--Introduction
Chapter 2--Research Design and Methods
D.
Summary
Chapter 3--Presentation of
Findings
Chapter
4--Conclusion
Appendix
References
Style.
Writing and bibliographic styles vary among institutions and
according to the research methods employed. For example, history is usually
written in a more narrative style than are experimental reports. Different
institutions and different approaches may dictate both the writing style
and bibliographic style.
There is a growing preference for the bibliographic styles used in
the older and better established social sciences. The
Pub-
Page 40
lication Manual of the American Psychological
Association
(American Psychological
Association, 1974) is a good example of such a style guide. Writers of history
and others in the social sciences frequently follow
Turabian (1970), while some universities have their
own style manuals. Graduate students should become acquainted early with
the requirements and expectations of their institution.
Even though institutions differ on bibliographic style, they generally
agree that the prose should be accurate, clear, concise, and grammatically
correct. Strunk and White (1965) have published a popular guide that struggling
writers will find helpful.
There is no reason that a successful dissertation or research report
has to be boring. Chambers (1960) has suggested that such a flaw is due only
to the ineptitude of the writer or his indifference to the art of communication.
Good writing is helpful at every stage of the research
process.
Continuing
the Process
The feeling of success which accompanies the completion of a dissertation
is heady wine. Yet too many graduates in adult education fail to move beyond
that first experience in rigorous research. Why? The failure of a large
percentage of the more than 1800 adult educators who hold the doctorate to
continue their research and writing is a major problem that may stem
from a variety of causes. One possible explanation may be the student's attitude
toward research, which is often "Considered mystical or overly abstract and
useless in practice. The problem is compounded when the dissertation is viewed
as a hurdle rather than as a way of seeking answers. As a result of such
negative perceptions, a large number of the doctorates in adult education
may be awarded to recipients who vow, "Never-again."
The development of this attitude might be prevented if the student's
advisory committee would attempt to stimulate curiosity, encourage observation,
foster inquiry, and then provide ample nonthreatening opportunities for the
prospective adult educator to test his ability to use a variety of inquiry
skills. This book is intended to increase the probability that novice researchers
will develop a realistic and positive attitude toward the practice of
research.
January, 2005
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