Self-Directed Adult Learning: Some Implications for Practice
Roger Hiemstra
Adult Education Program, Occasional Paper No. 2
1982
This report is derived from a course conducted during
the spring semester of 1981 at
The report is made available through efforts of
students and faculty in adult education at
Roger Hiemstra
March, 1982
__________________
This report is dedicated to the memory of Mr. John Champaigne, one of the workshop participants, who was killed in a traffic accident in December, 1981.
TOPICS COVERED IN THIS REPORT
Preface |
INTRODUCTION |
The Class |
Learning Projects Research |
Definition of Terms |
Additional Suggestions Derived During Group Discussions |
BUILDING AN UNDERSTANDING |
History of Self-Directed Learning |
Policy Statements |
Colonial |
Readers’ Advisory Services at the
|
Mohandas Karamanchad Gandhi |
Self-Directed Adult Learning in Higher Education |
Are Institutions of Higher Education Facilitating Self-Directed Learning? |
Learners |
Agencies |
Implications |
Recommendations |
Educators/Researchers |
Recommendations |
REFERENCES |
Appendix A: Workshop Participants and Staff |
Appendix B: Workshop Information |
Appendix C: Abstracts of Students’ Term Project Papers |
Appendix D: Lecture/Discussion Topics in Class |
Appendix E: Learning Projects Interview Materials |
Preface
Interest in adult learning projects research and on the whole body of knowledge frequently referred to as self-directed adult learning remains high. Funded and student research on the general topic continues to be reported, although much of the more recent research appears to be aimed at either the refinement of earlier findings or general expansion of knowledge about adults as self-directed learner.
My own work in this area through personal research
and reflection or through the research efforts of several colleagues to whom I
have provided some guidance has reached the stage, for the most part, of
contributing to the development of theory about self-directed learning and
thinking through programming or policy implications for actual practice. For
example, one colleague (Hassan, 1981) completed a study in which she compared
measurements of self-directed readiness using the SDLR Scale (Guglielmino,
n.d., 1977) with actual demonstrations of self-directed learning involvement as
measured by the learning projects interview technique (Penland, 1978, 1979;
Tough, 1978, 1979). Two colleagues and I completed a chapter on self-directed
learning theory for a book (Brockett, Hiemstra, & Penland, 1982). Two other
colleagues (Leean & Sisco, 1981) completed an NIE sponsored research
project in which rural adults from
The above reflect only a small portion of the research on this topic recently completed or currently underway. Yet, there has not been much development, to date, related to developing implications for practitioners or building a visible theory base in support of or to better understand self-directed adult learning. I coordinated a course on policy development related to self-directed adult learning (Hiemstra, 1980), but we did not focus on theory building or programming implications. Thus, I conceived of the idea to involve a group of people in such a task. A semester-long class (meeting once per week for 150 minutes) for three graduate credits was the vehicle used. This publication is a report of our activities, deliberations and products. Obviously, only a start at such a task is possible in such a setting. However, I believe we have made a contribution upon which subsequent research and theory building efforts can be built. Feedback and interactive discussions are welcome.
I would like to acknowledge the tremendous efforts put forth by all class members. The willingness of each member to work hard, to be flexible, and to remain enthusiastic about the tasks made the experience most worthwhile and rewarding. In addition, I would
like to thank my colleagues Professors Dennis Gooler, Sid
Micek, Sei Miura, and Dick Pearson for their helpful contributions. The
interests of most participants appeared increased through the class experience
and so I suspect that their future contributions through research, professional
writing, and working with others will be many. Finally, my long term agenda for
research and program development at
Roger Hiemstra
Coordinator
March, 1982
INTRODUCTION
One of the most stimulating areas of research related to adult education is the work that has taken place during the past decade relative to self-directed adult learning. Initiated by Tough's (1979) work on adults' learning projects, self-directed learning has been defined as "a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies and evaluating learning outcomes" (Knowles, 1975). Thus, the notion of active participation and performance on the part of individual learners has numerous implications for higher education, adult education, and others whose professional activities tend to center on institutional forms of education for adults.
Unfortunately, there have not been many reports in the literature relative to thinking through such implications. Several people have suggested some research needs in the conclusions section of their research reports. Cross (1981), Gross (1977), and Tough (1979) discuss some notions about resource needs or needed changes in practice. Hiemstra (1980) tells about some needed policy for adult learners and adult education agencies. This current report reveals some thinking on the part of several individuals thinking and working together over the course of a semester. The synergistic result provides some additional insights as to what may be needed in future practice if the needs of all learners are to be met.
There are several concerns as yet unanswered:
It is with such concerns in mind and in the determination to help increase the knowledge in this area of study that the class was conducted and that this report is presented.
The Class
A three semester hour graduate course on
self-directed adult learning was held during the spring semester 1981 on the
campus of
Class members met weekly, afternoons, for 150 minutes. In addition, considerably time was spent outside that period for small group work, individual study, learning projects, data collection, and final project development. For those readers interested in duplicating portions of the class process or informational contents, Appendix B contains a description of the course, the requirements, and the approximate schedule followed. Appendix C summarizes the types of individual projects completed by class members. Appendix D summarizes some of the lecture/discussion topics covered in class in addition to information on learning projects and self-directed learning.
An interactive process for maximizing participant involvement, input, and feedback was utilized during the course. This included individual and group diagnosis of need, small and large group discussions, agenda building activities, clarifying procedures, formats, and commitments through processing (interactive feedback), individual discussions with the instructor, and various evaluation activities. As much as possible within the confines of an institution-based credit course, self-directed learning activity was encouraged.
Perhaps the most difficult task during the course was determining some implications for practice. We used brainstorming and large group techniques, small group discussions, and individual developmental efforts. One major problem was trying to find ways of interrelating the different areas around which groups of people clustered. This was not easy, nor was making good collective sense out of all the separate contributions. A start at understanding something about some important implications for practice has been made, but considerable work still remains. It is hoped that this report will stimulate some of the remaining effort required to build theory, derive application suggestions, and facilitate needed research.
Learning Projects Research
A fairly consistent pattern of findings has emerged from the various researchers who have examined adults' pursuit of learning projects (Hiemstra, 1975; Penland, 1978, 1979), Tough, 1979). Thus, some predictions can be made regarding the amount of effort, the nature, and type of planning preference related to learning efforts by adults.
With such predictions in mind, class participants were asked to gain some interviewing experience and a better understanding of the learning projects research by carrying out at least five interviews. Appendix E includes the interview materials provided to students. In addition, all class members participated in a three hour training session conducted by the instructor that included practice interviewing.
A total of 71 people were interviewed by 14 students. The age range of the subjects was 22-78 with the average age being 48. Of the total, 64% were female, 73% were classified as employed in professional occupations, and the average number of years of completed formal education was nearly 16 years. Table 1 shows a comparison between these findings (labeled Syracuse University Group), Tough's (1979) original research findings, and a later composite of several studies (Tough, 1978).
Although there were similarities between the two
reports and the
In summary, considerable knowledge about adults as learners in terms of planning preferences and the amount of involvement has been obtained. In essence, the research stimulated through the learning projects notion (Tough, 1979) has helped to change images about adults. A lifelong potential for and involvement with learning appears to be a prevalent or at least acceptable label for most adults. It is hoped that some of the information created in this course will help in the understanding of these changing images.
Table 1. A Comparison of Summary Data from Various Learning Project Studies.
Data Description |
Tough |
Composite |
Syr. Univ. Group |
Number of Learning Projects: |
|
|
|
Mean |
08.3 |
05.0 |
12.0 |
Range |
0-20 |
0-35 |
3-26 |
Number of Hours of Participation: |
|
|
|
Mean |
816 |
500 |
1163 |
Percent of Participation in Learning Project Activity |
98 |
90 |
100 |
Current Status of Projects: |
|
|
|
Active |
66% |
70% |
76% |
Inactive/Completed |
34% |
30% |
24% |
Credit Status of Projects: |
|
|
|
Credit |
01% |
05% |
06% |
Non-Credit |
99% |
95% |
94% |
Planner Type: |
|
|
|
Self-planned |
68% |
73% |
65% |
Group/Instructor |
12% |
14% |
15% |
One-to-one |
08% |
10% |
08% |
Resource Planned |
03% |
03% |
03% |
Mixed |
09% |
n.a. |
10% |
Definition of Terms
As group discussions developed during the early stages of the course, a need emerged to examine the concept of self-directed adult learning as described in the literature. The instructor and various students presented definitions from a review of the literature. Several of the definitions generated are presented here. A later section describes additional related concepts from an historical perspective. .
A fundamental purpose of adult education is to facilitate growth of persons toward self-understanding and maturity (Overstreet, 1949).
Self-knowledge is one of the fundamental aims of adult education. If the individual is not aware of personal strengths and weaknesses, how is growth possible? (Axford, 1969).
Self-knowledge is an awareness of one's own skills, abilities, assets, and liabilities (Broady, 1960).
Disciplined independent learning can ignite the spirit of inquiry and discovery which is the essence of real learning. Such activity helps the learner feel that doing things by self is possible...experiencing the thrill of independent discovery, which stimulates a desire for further learning (Bergevin, 1967).
Self-planned learning is a learning activity that is self directed, self-initiated, and frequently carried out alone (Hiemstra, 1976).
Lifelong learning means self-directed growth. It means understanding yourself and the world. It means acquiring new skills and powers -- the only true wealth which you can never lose (Gross, 1977).
Self-directed learning describes a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes. Other labels found in the literature include:
self-planned learning
inquiry method
independent learning
self-education
self-instruction
self-teaching
self-study
autonomous learning (Knowles, 1975).
Self-directed learning begins with the learner. It sees the learner as the primary impetus for an initiator of the learning process. Teachers, classes, and other educational features are then put in a secondary light, as aids to the learning process rather than its central elements (Draves, 1980).
Independent learning opportunities include all efforts to assist learners proceeding on their own, at their own pace (Peterson, 1979).
Self-education -- the directing of one's own education without depending upon an external educational agent (Jensen, 1964).
In self-planned learning, the adult must perform many of the planning tasks that would be performed by the instructor during a course (Tough, 1978).
A self-planner retains the major responsibility for day-to-day decision-making about needs and criteria for selecting and using informative data (Penland, 1979).
One possible planner is the individual learner where personal control of and responsibility for decisions about what and how to learn are retained (Tough, 1979).
Additional Suggestions Derived During Group Discussions
Self-planned learning is a systematic learning effort that is self-directed, self-initiated, self-evaluated and frequently carried out alone.
Any definition of self-directed adult learning (SDAL) must take into account the context in which the learning takes place (i.e., formal vs. informal; institutional vs. non-institutional; etc.).
SDAL is that learning which is self-planned, self-implemented and self-evaluated.
It is imperative to view SDAL as an attitude.
SDAL beings with self-knowledge (awareness of one's own skills, assets, and liabilities). The impetus for learning begins with the learner who then retains the control of and responsibility for decisions about what and how to learn. This means that teachers, classes, and other educational features in learning are seen as secondary, as aids to the learning process. SDAL means an investment in oneself, it includes growth and the process of acquiring new skills and power (the only true wealth one can never lose).
SDAL usually takes place in association with various kinds of helpers, such as teachers, tutors, mentors, resource people, and peers. There is a lot of mutuality among a group of self-directed learners. SDAL results in experiencing the thrill of independent discovery which stimulates a desire for further learning.
A definition of SDAL ought to include: a statement of philosophy; a statement of methodology; should grow out of a clarification of the values and assumptions we hold about learning and adults; a statement regarding the learner's freedom to choose.
BUILDING AN UNDERSTANDING
History of Self-Directed Learning
Though the term "self-directed learning" is fairly recent, the concept that it describes has been a major force in the education of adults throughout history. Kulich (1970) has stated that prior to the widespread development of schools, "self-education was the prime way for...[people] to cope with the world around...[them]." So often, educators find themselves reinventing the wheel. By examining the history of adult learning, it should be possible to avoid some of this duplication and build our knowledge of self-directed learning on a foundation of existing information. Thus, the following examples illustrate the way in which influential people or institutions can be studied to better understand learning. A specific period of time, a specific institution, and an individual were chosen to demonstrate some of the possible sources of historical information.
Colonial
The history of adult education in the
Self-directed learners in Colonial America had a wide range of resources to assist them in their learning efforts. An important part of these efforts was the "oral tradition," which was facilitated by the use of letters, diaries, and written records of events of the times that could be passed on orally from one person to another. Some of the important resources described by Long included societies and associations, libraries, and printed materials, many of which remain important today as learning resources.
Societies and associations, through a broad range of objectives and activities, frequently provided valuable assistance to the self-directed adult learner. The Junto, a discussion group formed by Benjamin Franklin and several friends, is an illustration of this type of organization. In the Junto, members had an outlet in which they shared the fruits of their various self-directed inquiries.
Libraries were another important resource for self-directed learners. Personal libraries were not uncommon among those persons wealthy enough to afford a collection of books. Subscription libraries, where patrons paid a specified amount for the use of its services, made libraries accessible to a greater number of people. Additional information on libraries appears in the next section.
In addition to books, several other kinds of printed materials were important to self-directed learners in Colonial America. Almanacs provided information about a variety of topics, much as they do today. One of the most famous almanacs in American history, Poor Richard's Almanac, was begun during this time. Newspapers played an important role in the political activity surrounding the Revolution. Magazines were another source of valuable information for self-directed learners.
There are but a few examples of the resources that were available to self-directed learners during the Colonial period in American history. While certainly not all-inclusive, it serves to illustrate the way in which a period of time can be studied to produce information about self-directed adult learning.
Readers' Advisory Services at the
The self-directed learning research during the 1970s might lead to the assumption that the phenomenon has developed only recently. The concept is not new, as pointed out earlier; under a variety of names, and in numerous settings, self-directed adult learning has been present in the lives of many adults throughout history.
One of the settings where self-directed learning has traditionally taken place is the library. The library's resources have always been focused for self-directed learners, but in the 1920s and 30s, the interaction between self-directed learners, librarians, and library resources was made explicit through readers' advisory services developed in many libraries throughout the country. Of all these services, the most famous was the Office of the Readers' Advisor at the New York Public Library (Flexner and Hopkins, 1941; Monroe, 1963).
The Office of the Readers' Advisor was established under the direction of Jennie M. Flexner in 1928. It existed for twenty years; for sixteen of them, Flexner was the guiding force behind its services. As it was first established, individuals pursuing learning projects were referred to the Readers' Advisor who would interview them regarding their learning interests and then develop a personally-tailored reading list.
During the Depression years, the Office of the Readers' Advisor served thousands of self-directed learners, many of whom were out of work. After 1936, readers' advisory services spread to many of New York Public's branches, thus making individual services to self-directed learners even more accessible.
The Office of the Readers' Advisor was a success primarily because it was integrated into a setting where self-directed adult learners had traditionally been present -- the public library. Its success was not due solely to its institutional setting, however. The period of the Depression and the strong personal influence of Jennie M. Flexner combined with the library setting to produce an important historical example for future librarians and adult educators to emulate.
Mohandas Karamanchad Gandhi
One of the most prominent figures in our recent
history is Mohandas Gandhi. In addition to his fame as a fighter for
Being a naturally avid learner, Gandhi studied during his life almost all scientific subjects from Geography to Astronomy. Yet he did not consider that the study of such subjects guarantees by itself self-realization: "...whether you take elementary education or higher education, is not required for the main thing. It does not make men of us. It does not enable us to do our duty" (Gandhi, 1951).
Gandhi's ideas regarding education are radical and revolutionary. Searching the philosophical foundations of education, he starts by asking, "What is the meaning of education and what should be its aim and object?" In Gandhi's view, education means much more than intellectual knowledge. Its primary aim is the building up of character. Education that helps to build up sound character and promotes self-development is true education. And the true education of the individual, which is all round development of personal faculties, is best obtained through action. Gandhi's "scheme of education bases itself on the sound and indisputable fact that knowledge and understanding develop in relation to problems set by action" (Gandhi, 1951).
With this idea in mind, Gandhi proposed that education should create a suitable atmosphere for productive work. The mind and the body are in organic harmony; therefore, true education is the development of all personal faculties in a correlated manner so as to produce a harmonious and well-balanced personality. In this way, practice and intellectual exercise should be equally important.
In regard to intellectual development, Gandhi was a strong promoter of library services. In his opinion, the ideal library should be one that is constantly expanded to embrace new books and other reading materials. "It should provide facilities for arranging occasional lectures, and for students and scholars engaged in research work to come and make use of the books there in an atmosphere of peace" (Gandhi, 1962). In other words, libraries must be the temples of knowledge and wisdom.
Of all the many good things that Gandhi gave to
Self-Directed Adult
Learning in Higher Education
Interest in self-directed adult learning has not been confined just to the non-formal, non-credit areas. Although the research in this area has demonstrated that a great deal of adult learning takes place outside of any formal classroom, many leaders in higher education have begun program development activities aimed at increasing self-directed learning opportunities. Indeed, the growing numbers of adult learners attending higher education institutions dictates the examination and inclusion of various non traditional opportunities.
For example, Harrington (1977) describes the future of adult education in terms of both existing efforts and what is needed in higher education for adults. Vermilye (1974) and associates talk about lifelong learners as a new clientele for higher education. Peterson and associates (1979) describe a variety of resources, materials, and groups connected in some way with lifelong learning. Even such individual planning resources as those developed by Gross (1977), Knowles (1975), and Cooper (1980) can be used by participants in higher education to guide their learning pursuits.
Thus, the following sub-sections talk about various aspects of programming for self-directed adult learning by higher education institutions. These include how such institutions currently are dealing with the phenomenon, how individual adult students are being involved in program development, some suggested implications related to classroom methodology, and suggestions regarding related areas that need to be developed.
Are Institutions of Higher Education Facilitating Self-directed Learning? Any consideration of the concept of self-directed adult learning and its relationship to higher or postsecondary education has to begin with posing at least three questions:
1. What do institutions of higher education do to foster self-directed learning?
2. What do institutions of higher education do to hamper self-directed learning?
3. What attempt do institutions of higher education make to attract self-directed adult learners?
Experience with such institutions leads one to wonder, at times, if anything at all is being done to foster self-directed learning. Most tours through an undergraduate course of study, for example, are not guided tours in pursuit of an individual's learning interests, but rather they are limited explorations of territory bounded by semesters, credit hours, and instructors' interests and values. Graduate school can be somewhat different, the boundaries may be somewhat broader, but the roadblocks to be surmounted (examinations, oral defenses, research paper requirements, etc.) often are much higher. As pointed out in the opening comments for this section, some changes are being made, but the_ appear few and slow in their development.
Within the structure of individual academic programs there is little room for an individual to explore personal interests; few courses are designed or few instructors equipped to develop the values, attitudes and skills necessary for students to become more self-directed in their approach to learning. The process and outcomes of credentialing and certification frequently take precedent over other possible participation objectives. Though most people subscribe to the notion that the college graduate is educated or learned, what is really possessed is a credential that entitles a person to be the holder of a place in society. Most often this place has to do with the employment or the career of the individual.
Thus, the thesis of this sub-section message is that the structure of higher education as it presently exists does little to foster self-directed adult learning. Further, much in that very structure effectively hampers such learning efforts. Instructors are seen by themselves and by their students as experts rather than facilitators. What is to be learned often is decided by the state, the institution, and/or the nature of the discipline. How content is to be learned and how learning is to take place frequently are decided by matters of cost and efficiency. When the year is divided into 15 week semesters or 11 week quarters, classrooms have chairs in rows facing a podium, and papers are required and exams held on specified dates, learning becomes routinized and efficient. Perhaps one could question if this is learning at all!
Obviously, there are efforts to change the system taking place in higher education institutions. Independent study, external degrees, and credit for life experience are attempts to loosen the structure, break down the barriers, and permit adults to certify their self-directed learning efforts. For some learners, these options are quite appropriate. They provide ways to achieve certification that fit into adult lifestyles and take into account adult learning accomplished outside of institutions. Unfortunately, a major conclusion can be drawn that much more will be required before the self-directed learning potential existing in most learning can be adequately tapped.
Involvement of
Adult Students in Program Development
Curriculum. There appears to be a growing philosophical difference between the adult student of today and institutions of higher education. No longer are such students satisfied with whatever they may find useful from preplanned programs. The student of today is aware that he or she is a consumer and wants a definite voice in planning the total program, and especially his or her own program. Thus, it is very important that faculties anticipate that need.
In addition to planning, the student has a definite role in assessing what curriculum is needed and evaluating both the product and the method in which the teaching is done. When participating in these activities, the student needs an active voice rather than just serving as an informed observer. Also, the student needs to be actively involved in any self-study efforts regarding curricula that might be undertaken for accrediting bodies.
Classroom. The best place to start is to emphasize the importance of treating each adult learner as an individual. This means realizing that each has had unique life experiences as well as learning experiences. Assuming that students have had a voice in determining what courses they would take, there should be a fairly high motivation about the whole learning process. Very early in the learning process, the facilitator (faculty member) would assist the student in outlining his or her learning needs. The two would then draw up a learning contract stipulating objectives, learning methodologies, and a method of evaluation.
Faculty should have a fairly clear idea of how the class as a whole learns best once the learning contracts have been completed. There would probably be several methods of learning chosen. If, because of some unusual situation, a straight lecture method is needed for a course, students should still have a voice in selecting the content.
The "classroom" can literally be wherever the students will learn best. We do not need to limit the learning setting to the usual four-wall formal setting. Thus, in one learning process, several "classrooms" might be used.
Recommendations (Based on DeMott, 1974)
APPLICATIONS FOR ADULT EDUCATION PRACTICE
AND RESEARCH
What does the current state of the art in thinking about self-directed learning mean to those people who plan and carry out programs for or provide services to adult learners. It is one thing to trace some history related to self-directed learning or to talk about how some institutions are dealing with self-directed learners, for example, but it is another to begin the process of deriving implications for institutional representatives and others who must either change some of their practice or learn some new approaches.
Members of the course spent considerable time talking about their individual course projects, the state of the art relative to knowledge in this area, and the combined findings of our learning projects interviewing efforts. A variety of implications were discussed and suggestions made. The following represents the editor's (course instructor) attempt to synthesize from the discussion and suggestions some thoughts relative to three audience levels: Learners, Education Researchers, and Adult Education Agencies
Learners.
Four assumptions about adults as learners guide much of the thinking by adult educators as they think through instructional strategies and programming needs (Knowles, 1980):
These assumptions provide considerable help in understanding learners and give some direction to thinking through the service provided to self-directed individuals. Self-directed learners, therefore, can be seen as active learners, able or desiring to diagnose needs, and frequently possessing strong self-concepts that facilitate personal ownership of learning planning and implementation.
Perhaps one of the most significant contributions from all the research regarding learning projects and self-directed involvement has been the formal acknowledgement that most adults are engaged in learning, often at a rate much greater than ever before imagined. Certainly, the research conducted for this course substantiated that notion. Thus, promoting self-directed involvement may be an important strategy in reaching learners who are often overlooked in educational efforts -- the older person, minority individuals, and others not normally in the mainstream of institutional programming. Through the implementation of self-directed learning activities in addition to more traditional adult education forms, it may be feasible to provide services to most adults who would benefit by them. Learning Implications: Learners in a wide variety of age groups, minority categories, and socio-economic classifications are capable of considerable self-directed learning; subsequently, adult education and agency administration should endeavor to facilitate involvement in such learning by these various people.
Another area receiving attention by researchers has to do with the views held by learners regarding themselves and others. Sabbaghian (1979), for example, determined that a strong relationship exists between a person's self-concept and self-directed learning readiness. Learning Implications: (a) means to encourage and develop a learner's positive self-concept should be explored; (b) learners should be helped to develop abilities in personal decision-making.
Another area of discussion during the workshop pertained to the rights and responsibilities of learners in self-directed learning. The responsibilities of the educator, the rights of the learner regarding costs of learning assistance, and the needs for policies and guidelines were other related topics introduced during the workshop. Various small group and large group conversations facilitated some ideas of potential value. Learning Implications: (a) the self-directed learner may need to be protected against manipulation by others, perhaps through a code of ethics; (b) learners should be helped to guard against manipulation by others.
There also was some discussion regarding the use of learning resources by self-directed learners. Because such learners use a wide variety of resources, it was a general consensus that attention must be given to improving both the resources themselves and the access to them. Learning Implications: (a) there is a need to develop a variety of high quality learning guides; (b) programmed learning materials or other types of learning kits should be developed on a variety of topics; (c) a greater mobilization of the entire community and its available resources for learning is needed; this could include such activities as promoting learning networks, study circles, and learning exchanges.
Finally, because there were three international
students in the workshop, considerable discussion was generated related to
helping learners from other countries adapt to a self-directed learning
environment in a typical
Agencies
Considerable discussion centered on the premise that the promotion of SDAL cannot be successful without certain levels of support from the agency sponsoring or administering the learning or the necessary resources. The range of support needed is vast.
Implications
Even if there are certain levels of support provided by an organization or agency, there is no guarantee that all institutional faculty or trainers will "buy into" the concepts foundational to the promotion of SDAL. Subsequently, it was suggested during the workshop that staff development training on self-directed learning be provided. Hopefully, the result will be educating colleagues about the potential of SDAL techniques, resources, and philosophy in improving educational opportunities for adults.
Recommendations
Educators/Researchers
During the course, a variety of implications and recommendations pertaining to roles for educators and researchers
were generated. For example, on the basis of the discussion presented earlier pertaining to some historical predecessors of self-directed learning, several research recommendations are offered:
Recommendations
There also was some thinking about methodological and teaching issues. In general, there was consensus that the instructional process needs to prove from "teacher-centered" to "learner centered." A learner focus indicates that the instructor has to change from an egalitarian mode of instruction to more of a planned eclecticism or learning facilitation mode of instruction. By this is meant that the course requirements, methods of delivery and evaluation devices must offer the widest possible opportunity and choices for students. Consequently, with the individual learner as the focus, the individual becomes responsible for the learning.
There also was some discussion that focused on the notion that we need to be careful in adult education that we don't professionalize ourselves into an elite group of learning facilitators where an "andragogical" or self-directed learning approach becomes just another slick way of controlling people. In other words, it will take real commitment and, frequently, some real institutional changes to move toward giving the learner considerable control over the learning.
Recommendation
Institutions of higher education and other supporters of learning by adults need to make a concerted effort, perhaps through vehicles like policy or staff training ,: to promote self-directed learning wherever it exists in the community.
Finally, more brainstorming took place in both small and large groups pertaining to needed research. Several areas for future research were suggested:
Research Areas
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among adults of low and high readiness for self-direction in learning.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Hiemstra, R. (1975). The older adult and learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 117 371).
Hiemstra, R. (1976). Lifelong
learning: An exploration of adult and continuing education within a setting of
lifelong learning needs.
Hiemstra, R. (1980). Policy recommendations related to self-directed adult learning (Occasional Paper No. 1). Available electronically: /policy1.html
Jensen, G., Liveright, A.
A., & Hallenbeck, W. (Eds.). (1964). Adult
education: Outlines of an emerging field of university study.
Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education.
Kulich, J. (1970). An historical overview of the adult
self-learner. Paper presented at the Northwest Institute on Independent
Study’s "The Adult as a Self-Learner" session,
Learned, W. J. (1924). The American public library and the
diffusion of knowledge.
Leean, C. & Sisco, B.
R. (1981). Learning projects and
self-planned learning efforts among undereducated adults in rural
Long, H. B. (1976). Continuing education of adults in Colonial
Monroe, M. E. (1963). Library adult education: The biography of an
idea.
Overstreet, N. (1949). The mature mind.
Penland, P. R. (1978). Self planned learning in America. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 152 987).
Penland, P. (1979). Self-initiated learning. Adult Education, 29, 170-179.
Peterson, R. E., &
Associates. (1979). Lifelong learning in
Sabbaghian, Z. S. (1979). Adult self-directedness and self-concept: An
exploration of Relationship. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Tough, A. (1978). Major learning efforts: Recent research and future directions. Adult Education, 28, 250-263.
Tough, A. (1979). The
adult's learning projects (2nd Ed.)
Vermilye, D. W. (Ed.).
(1974). Lifelong learners – A new
clientele for higher education.
APPENDIX A
Workshop
Participants
Mary Beth Bombardi
Graduate Student in Adult Education
Ralph G. Brockett
Graduate Student in Adult Education
Carol G. Cameron
Hospital Svcs. Education Coordinator
Graduate Student in Adult Education
John Champaigne
Chairperson, Department of Developmental
Community College of the
Joseph M. Ebiware
Graduate Student in Adult Education
Sheila Kay Green
Research Student in Gerontology
Graduate Student in Adult Education
Keneston W. Landers, Jr.
Graduate Student in Adult Education
Joan C. Murphy
Assistant Professor
Hilda Patino
Graduate Student in Adult Education
Dorothy K. Paynter
Director, Energy Education Training Division
RIT
Candace M. Pearce
Graduate Student in Counseling and Guidance
Phyllis T. Read
Graduate Student in Adult Education
Julie C. Smith
Graduate Student in Adult Education
Agnes Nakas Walbe
Graduate Student in Adult Education
Nancy F. Ziegler
Director of Graduate Programs
Workshop Staff
Dr. Dennis Gooler, workshop
presenter, is Director, EDCAS Division,
Dr. Roger Hiemstra,
workshop leader, is Professor and Chair, Adult Education,
Dr. Sid Micek, workshop
presenter, is Area Head, Administrative and Adult Studies,
Dr. Sei Miura, workshop
presenter, is a Fulbright Scholar in Adult Education and on leave as Associate
Professor in Social Education, Fukuoka National University of Education,
Dr. Richard
Pearson, workshop presenter, is an Associate Professor, Counseling and
Guidance,
APPENDIX B
Workshop Information
Introduction
Adult Education is an exciting field to study and is equally exciting to be associated with as a workshop participant or as a professional. It is a field that is dynamic, growing, and full of opportunity.
Perhaps the most dynamic area of activity and study is that related to self-directed adult learning. Tough's initial work on adults' learning projects (1979) and the subsequent research of many has resulted in the awesome awareness of how much people are involved with self-directed study and how little prepared professional adult educators are to provide assistance with such study. Needed are new instructional skills, a better understanding of needed roles for adult educators, and policy guidelines for future funding, training, and resource development. Further, Cross in 1981 (Adults as Learners) urged the study of "the improvement of the help and resources available for self-directed learning" (p. 195).
Therefore, the general purpose of this workshop is to obtain a comprehensive view of present research and practice related to self-directed learning and to study implications for the future. The derivation and discussion of needed resources and other recommendations for professional adult educators will be an important activity.
Competency
Expectations
At the completion of the course, each participant should be able to perform in the following ways:
Requirements
Term Project
(Select any one of the following)
Schedule of Events
Week One
1. Introduction, resources, goals, learning tasks
2. "Self-Directed Adult Learning - The State of the Art -- Roger Hiemstra
Week Two
1. "Self-Directed Research Activities and Needs" -- Roger Hiemstra
2. Initial group formation
Week Three
1. Training in Tough's learning projects protocol
2. Practice with interviewing
Week Four
1. Debriefing and discussion of the interview protocol
2. "Developmental Stages and Adult Counseling Roles" -- Richard Pearson
Week Five
1. Small group work
2. "Incorporating SDAL into a Larger Organization" -- Dennis Gooler
Week Six
1. Sharing of learning projects interview data and discussion of implications
2. "School of New Resources as an Organizational Example of SDAL" -- Sid Micek
Week Seven
1. Small group work
2. Large group discussion and feedback
Week Eight
1. Small group work
2. "Adaptation
of SDAL to
Week Nine
1. "Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale" -- Roger Hiemstra
2. Discussion and deriving implications
Week Ten
Week Eleven
1. Small group reports
2. Large group critiquing
Week Twelve
1. Small group reports
2. Large group critiquing
3. Examining an outline of the monograph
Week Thirteen
1. Small group reports
2. Large group critiquing
Week Fourteen
1. Small group reports and feedback
2. Initial drafts of monograph critiqued
Week Fifteen
1. Summarization and feedback
2. Course evaluation activities
APPENDIX C
Abstracts of Students' Term Project Papers
Ralph Brockett: "Helping Skills and the Adult Educator"
Urged that as adult educators become more involved with Self-directed Adult Learning (SDAL) concepts, they need to increase personal helping skills in line with better understanding of the processes through which learning takes place. They include:
Several applications to adult education were also provided.
Dorothy Paynter
Looked at the "fun" of learning that attracts some self-directed learners -- it actually is the opposite side of the "numbers" game most institutions play. Thus, we need to find ways for institutions to understand and work with SDAL individuals without removing their fun and enjoyment.
Candace Pearce
Talked about how the traditional socialization of women toward submission, docility, non-directive behavior, etc. and how that presents problems for women in even realizing that SDAL is possible. She believes that helping women understand the phenomenon, how to obtain resources, etc. is needed. Enhancing positive self-concept also is important (See ,Sabbaghian, 1979).
Phyllis Read
Described the hemispheric differences (brain
hemisphere dominance theory) in men and women and suggested that the
traditional education approaches in the
Julie Smith
Described the New York Public Library's readers advisory service that was in existence during the early 1900s and developed under Jennie Flaxner. Participating libraries provided many self directed services such as individually designing reading lists, preparing reading lists for groups and locating other types of resources.
Agnes Walbe
Examined the literature and found several different definitions of and explanations for SDAL.
Nancy Ziegler
Looked at some possible ways of adding self-directed learning concepts and techniques to teacher education programs.
John Champagne
Examined the implications of learning projects research in terms of using the Tough style interview technique for counseling, admissions, etc. activities and to assist adults with planning their learning. He suggested that there also is a need to
facilitate placing the focus of control and responsibility for learning into the hands of the learners.
Joan Murphy
Looked at the value of the literature on SDAL relative to teaching at the college level. She made an initial start at reviewing and discussing some of the relevant literature.
Sheila Green
Suggested some needs and recommendations for helping learners in elementary grades become more self-directed.
Mary Beth Bombardi
Suggested some ideas on how future learning consultants could help learners learn how to use all their personal senses in their lifelong individual learning efforts.
Joseph Ebiware
Carried out a mini study with 30 international students. All were asked about the types of instructional facilities used and what style of learning delivery they preferred. Fifteen were also administered the Guglielmino learning readiness scale. High motivation and involvement correlated with high self-directed readiness. He also wrote a short paper suggesting that instructional TV was best suited for self-directed learners (proactive) as there are not enough cues, etc. for reactive learners.
Hilda Patino
Used a research format similar to the project described above (Ebiware) with another group of international students. Similar results were obtained.
Ken Landers and
Carol Cameron
This pair of individuals teamed to examine possible relationships between self-directedness and cognitive styles.
APPENDIX D
Lecture/Discussion Topics in Class*
Establishing a
Learning Environment
· Encourage informality and a spirit of mutuality
· Create a non-threatening setting and work to reduce any initial anxiety that may exist
· Arrange for comfortable seating, an attractive setting, and the maximization of adequate sight and sound qualities
· Facilitate learners getting acquainted with each other through use of introductions, name tags, circle seating, etc.
Develop a Planning Mechanism
Diagnose Learning Needs
and Interests
Formulate Student
and Group Objectives Based on Determined Needs
Design and
Implementation of the Learning Experience
Evaluate the Learning
Experiences
· Use mutually determined evaluations by the student and the instructor (through the learning contract)
· Use non-graded or anonymous testing procedures where feasible
· Provide continuous feedback on learner progress
Personal
Approach of the Instructor
· Be positive, supportive and helpful
· Work to make the learner feel welcome
· Maintain an environment of informality and levity
· Help to promote learner confidence and self-respect
Sensitivity to
Needs (Sensory, Physical, Perceptual)
Relating to the
Needs and Experiences of Learners
Attention to the
Pace of Learning
Involving the
Learner in the Learning Process
Organization and
Meaningfulness in the Learning Material
Evaluation Related
to the Learning Effort
_____________________________
*Adapted from Hiemstra (1980) and Knowles (1980).
APPENDIX E
Learning Projects Interview Materials
Miscellaneous Notes
for Interviewers
Do not interrupt the person’s list of learning projects in order to ask criterion questions unless it is clear that the person is far off track. Whenever there is a long pause, though, you may want to clarify the one, two, or three possible learning projects that have just been mentioned. Use all your insight and questioning skill in order to understand just what the real focus was. Try to become precise about just what the person was attempting or wanting to learn. Especially if he or she selects one of the methods or subjects from the lists, try to get him or her to their own phrase rather than ours. Record the desired knowledge and skill, the task or responsibility, the question or interest, or whatever the focus was.
Do not quarrel with the person’s decisions and data, but do sometimes make one or two attempts to check his or her understanding of the question or to clarify an answer. Record any doubts you have about the responses you obtain for later examination.
Whenever the person mentions some activity or some area of his or her life that you think might have produced other learning projects, too, ask about such possibilities.
ID ________
Community _____________________________________________
Gender __________ Race ___________ Social Class ______________ Living Arrangement ________________________________
(Introduce yourself. Say something like I’m helping the
Adult Education Program of Syracuse University to discover ways to serve better
the people of
I’m interested in discovering your learning efforts in the
past year and your potential learning needs so that the Adult Education Program
might be better prepared to help the people of
What is your age? ___________ Marital status? _____________________ How many years of formal education (P) ____________
Other types of training or education (P) ____________________________________________________________________________
Profession or occupation (P) ____________________________________________________________________________
Many things stop people from taking a course of study, learning a skill, or following a topic of interest. Which of the following do you feel are important in keeping you from learning what you want to learn? I’ll read them to you and you may select as many as you would like by indicating yes or no.
____ COST
____ NOT ENOUGH TIME
____ HOME RESPONSIBILITIES
____ JOB RESPONSIBILITIES
____ AMOUNT OF TIME REQUIRED TO COMPLETE A COURSE OR PROGRAM
____ I’M TOO OLD TO BEGIN LEARNING
____ NO INFORMATION ABOUT WHERE I CAN GET WHAT I WANT
____ COURSES I WANT AREN’T SCHEDULED WHEN I CAN ATTEND
____ STRICT ATTENDANCE REQUIREMENTS
____ LOW GRADES IN THE PAST
____ COURSES I WANT DON’T SEEM TO BE AVAILABLE
____ TOO MUCH RED TAPE IN GETTING ENROLLED
____ I DON’T HAVE ENOUGH ENERGY AND STAMINA
____ I DON’T ENJOY STUDYING
____ COURSES OFTEN ARE NOT INTERESTING
____ NO TRANSPORTATION AVAILABLE
____ I’M TIRED OF SCHOOL AND CLASSROOMS
____ I DON’T MEET REQUIREMENTS TO BEGIN A PROGRAM
____
____ DON’T KNOW WHAT I’D LIKE TO LEARN
____ FRIENDS OR FAMILY DON’T LIKE THE IDEA OF MY TAKING COURSES
____ DON’T LIKE TO GO OUT AT NIGHT
____ MY HEALTH IS BAD
____ NO PLACE TO STUDY OR PRACTICE
____ NOT CONFIDENT OF MY ABILITY
Now I’m interested in listing the things you have tried to learn during the past year. When I say “learn” I don’t just mean learning the sorts of things that people learn in schools and colleges. I mean any sort of deliberate efforts at all to learn something or to learn how to do something. Perhaps you tried to get some information or knowledge – or to gain new skills or improve your old ones – or to increase your sensitivity or understanding or appreciation. Can you think of any efforts like this that you have made during the past 12 months.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
(P) Try to think back over all of the past 12 months – right back to __________ of last year. I am interested in any deliberate effort you made to learn anything at all. Anything at all can be included, regardless of whether it was easy or hard, big or little, important or trivial, serious or fun, highbrow or lowbrow.
____________________________________________________________________________
(P) It doesn’t matter when your effort started, as long-as you have spent at least a few hours at it sometime since last month or so.
____________________________________________________________________________
(P) We want to get as complete a list as possible, because we think that people make far more attempts to learn than anyone realizes. We can include any sort of information, knowledge, skill, or understanding at all that you have tried to gain -- just as long as you spent at least a few hours at it sometime during the past 12 months.
____________________________________________________________________________
(P) Can you recall any other efforts to learn that were related to your home or your family? Anything related to your hobbies or recreation? Your job? Your responsibilities in various organizations, or clubs, or in a church or synagogue, or on a committee, or some other responsibilities? Anything related to some teaching, writing, or research that you do outside of your job?
____________________________________________________________________________
(P) Going back over the past 12 months, can you recall any other times that you tried to learn something by reading a book? When you read newspapers or magazines, do you read certain topics or sections because you want to remember the content? Have you tried to learn anything else from booklets, pamphlets, or brochures? From memos, letters, instructions, or plans? From technical or professional literature? From material from a library? From workbooks or programmed instruction? From an encyclopedia or other reference source?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
(P) Have you learned anything at all from a medical doctor? From a lawyer? From a counselor or therapist? From a financial or tax advisor? From a social worker? From a private teacher? From a specialist or expert? From individual private lessons?
____________________________________________________________________________
(P) Have you learned anything from documentaries or courses on television? From TV news or some other TV programs? From radio? In a theatre? Have you tried to learn from conversations? Or from asking questions: that is, have there been any topics or areas that you have tried to learn about from your friends or other people? Have you deliberately sought to learn by seeking out stimulating individuals? Have you tried to learn anything from your spouse or other relatives? From a neighbor?
____________________________________________________________________________
(P) Perhaps you have learned something in some group or other? Perhaps in some meeting or discussion group? From attending a conference? From a retreat or weekend meeting? From an institute or short course or workshop? From a committee or staff meeting? From taking a course? From attending evening classes, or lectures, or a speech? From a correspondence course? From attending a club or group meeting?
____________________________________________________________________________
(P) Perhaps tape recordings or phonograph records or "a language lab” helped you learn something during the past year? Have you learned in a church or synagogue? In a college, university, or school? In some community organization? In a company or factory or office? In a government program? In an exhibition, museum, or art gallery? In some vacation spot?
____________________________________________________________________________
Now I have a list of some of the things people learn (Sheet One). It may remind you of other things that you have tried to learn during the past 12 months. Take as long as you want to read each word, and to think about whether you have tried to learn something similar. (Give him or her the sheet, or read it aloud if necessary.)
OK, that gives us a fairly complete list. If you suddenly think of something else you have learned, though, please tell me.
ID ________
Now I want to find out a bit more about each of your efforts to learn. Let's begin with the first one on the list. It was your efforts to learn ____________________ . Here is a sheet that will help us learn more about your efforts and estimate the number of hours that you spent at learning this, and the number of hours spent at planning and preparing for that learning. (Hand him or her the second sheet – Sheet Two.)
(If possible, pin down and record just what the learning segments were. For example, you could ask, "How did you go about learning this? How was it learned? What did you do? Was there anything else you did to learn _______________?" Examples that you might record to help understand the total effort are: Watched an expert, listened to a record, read, practiced, attended a meeting, etc. This list of activities is primarily for your benefit in helping the person estimate his or her time accurately: We do not need the data for any specific purpose other than it might help you later determine the subject matter source. In other words, don't make any special effort to get it or to record it, but on the other hand don't discard it either.)
(Ask for a time estimate in total number of hours. If the number of hours is below 14, check two criteria. First, "within some six-month period during the past year, did you spend at least five hours at the learning itself -- that is, at the ______________ learning effort." Second, "within some six-month period or shorter period during the past year, did you spend at least seven hours altogether on the learning effort?" If both criteria are met write “yes” and proceed; if both are not met write “no” and move to the next learning project.)
(Ask them to select whether they have been active or not active.)
(Determine their reason for undertaking the project. Ask, "in any of your efforts on the learning endeavor, was credit any part of your motivation? That is, did you hope to use any of your learning efforts for academic credit -- towards some degree, certificate, diploma, or grade achievement? (Pause) Was any of your learning directed toward passing a test, examination, or course -- or toward some license or a driving test? (Pause) Or was it toward some requirement or examination or upgrading related to a job? (Pause) Or did you undertake the learning activity for your own enjoyment or self-improvement? Note: You will need to determine the primary reason.)
Now we are going to think about your learning effort and try to decide who or what was the director or leader. That is, who decided what you would learn – and how you would learn -- whenever you spent some time trying to learn? Here is a sheet explaining what I mean (Sheet Three). (If no one resource was primarily responsible --51% or more -- classify it as mixed. If he or she does not seem to understand, or if you feel doubtful about the response, ask who the particular director or leader was. If you anticipate difficulty or if the learner asks, say that we are interested in whom the leader was for the past 12 months rather than earlier.)
(Finally, determine the major source of subject matter. That is, what resource provided most of the content -- a book, a pro ski instructor, a discussion group, a television broadcast, etc?)
(Repeat for each learning project, recording the appropriate data.)
That completes the interview. Thank you very much for your time and assistance. I think your efforts will help to make education more meaningful in the lives of many adults.
Some
things that people learn about!
1. A sport or game; swimming; dancing; bridge
2. Current events; public affairs; politics; peace; biography
3. Sewing; cooking; homemaking; entertaining
4. Driving a car
5. Home repairs; woodworking; home improvement project; decorating and furniture
6. A hobby or craft; collecting something; photography
7. Raising a child; discipline; infant care; a child's education
8. Nature; agriculture; birds
9. Mathematics; statistics; arithmetic
10. Speed reading; effective writing; public speaking; vocabulary; literature
11. Science; astronomy; humans in space
12. Health; physical fitness; posture; clothes; appearance
13. History; geography; travel; some region, city, or neighborhood
14. Personal finances; savings; insurance; investing; purchasing something
15. Psychology; effective relationships with people; groups; leadership; socia1 skills
16. Typing, data processing; mechanical skills
17. Some personal problem; mental health; an emotional problem; an illness or medical condition
18. Various careers; choosing an occupation; finding a job
19. Gardening; landscaping
20. Something related to a job or responsibility or decision
21. Musical instrument; singing; music appreciation
22. Professional or technical competence; sales skills; how to teach or supervise
23. Some aspect of religion; ethics; philosophy; moral behavior
24. Current changes in society; the future; problems in cities; pollution; sociology
25. Relationships with the opposite sex; manners; marriage; relationships within the family
26. Art; painting; architecture; the opera; movies; television
27. Business management; economics; business ownership
28. Sensory awareness; human potential; communication; understanding oneself; personal efficiency
29. New techniques, a new way of doing something; an innovation
30. Spanish; French; some other language
(Sheet
One)
1. We need your best guess about the total amount of time that you spent at all aspects of this particular learning effort during the past 12 months. (Do this for each individual learning project)
Please include the time you spent reading -- listening -- observing -- or learning in some other way -- if your main purpose during that activity was to gain and retain certain knowledge or skill. In other words, we will include all the time during which at least half of your total motivation was to gain certain knowledge or skill, and to retain it until at least two days later.
In addition to the time you spent at the actual learning itself, please include all the hours that you spent, during the past 12 months, at deciding about the learning, planning the learning, and preparing and arranging for it. This can include any time spent at deciding what to learn -- deciding how to learn -- deciding where to get help -- seeking advice about these decisions (from other people or from printed materials) -- traveling to some of the learning activities, such as a meeting or practice session or library -arranging appropriate conditions for learning -- choosing the right book or person for the actual learning -- obtaining that book or reaching that person.
Of course, you cannot remember exactly how many hours, so just give your best guess. If you wish, just choose the closest number from the following list:
1 3
6 10 20
30 40 50
60 70 80
90 100 120
140 160 180
or more
2. Which of these following two answers best describes this particular learning effort at the present time?
(A) NOT VERY ACTIVE -- that is, you have dropped it or completed it, or you have set it aside for a while (or you are spending much less time at it now than you were before)
OR
(B) DEFINITELY ACTIVE -- that is, you are definitely continuing this learning effort right now, and you are spending about as much time as ever at it.
(Sheet Two)
There are four different sorts of learning efforts, according to who directs them. That is, a person's efforts to learn can be classified according to who was responsible for the day-to-day planning. We have to look at who planned or decided exactly what and how the person should learn at each session. For example, who decided what the person should read or hear, or what else he or she should do in order to learn?
1. Group-Planned
Learning
In some learning projects, you may decide to attend a group and let the group (or its leader or instructor) decide what and how you learn during each session. A group may be of any size, with a minimum of five people. Examples might be lectures, study groups, workshops, small informal groups, or conferences.
2. One-to-one Learning
In some learning projects, the planning and deciding of what to learn and in what order is handled by one person, who helps the learner in a one-to-one situation. That is, there is one helper (or instructor, teacher, expert, or friend) and there is one learner. These two persons interact usually face-to-face, although it could be by telephone or by correspondence. Even if 2-4 learners were receiving individualized attention from one other person at the same time, it would be included here.
3. Material Resource Learning
In these learning projects, the major part of the detailed direction on what to learn and what to do at each session resides in some material resource, object, or nonhuman resource. A programmed instruction book, a set of tape recordings, or a series of TV programs are examples: The learner follows the programs or materials and they tell him or her what to do next.
4. Self-Planned
Learning
In other learning projects, the learner him or herself retains the major responsibility for the day-to-day planning and decision-making. He or she may get advice from various people and use a variety of materials and resources, but he retains the responsibility for deciding what activities to try next, what to read, and what skill or knowledge should be next in the sequence. Instead of turning the job of planning over to someone else, he or she makes the day-to-day decisions alone.
(Sheet Three)
ID ________
Learning project name or number ____________________________________________________________________________
How was 1t learned? ____________________________________________________________________________
Number of hours? _______________ (criteria check – does it meet the requirements for including) _______________________
Not very active now ___________________ or Definitely active now ____________________
Reason for project ____________________________________________________________________________
Director of learning ____________________________________________________________________________
Source of subject matter ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Learning project name or number ____________________________________________________________________________
How was 1t learned? ____________________________________________________________________________
Number of hours? _______________ (criteria check – does it meet the requirements for including) _______________________
Not very active now ___________________ or Definitely active now ____________________
Reason for project ____________________________________________________________________________
Director of learning ____________________________________________________________________________
Source of subject matter ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Learning project name or number ____________________________________________________________________________
How was 1t learned? ____________________________________________________________________________
Number of hours? _______________ (criteria check – does it meet the requirements for including) _______________________
Not very active now ___________________ or Definitely active now ____________________
Reason for project ____________________________________________________________________________
Director of learning ____________________________________________________________________________
Source of subject matter ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Learning project name or number ____________________________________________________________________________
How was 1t learned? ____________________________________________________________________________
Number of hours? _______________ (criteria check – does it meet the requirements for including) _______________________
Not very active now ___________________ or Definitely active now ____________________
Reason for project ____________________________________________________________________________
Director of learning ____________________________________________________________________________
Source of subject matter ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Return to the self-directed learning informational page
Return to the first
page