THE MORALE OF THE PEOPLE: REFLECTIONS ON
ADULT EDUCATION IN
Gordon R. Selman
THE
The Province of British Columbia, whose economy was
based in large part on primary industries--forestry, mining and fishing--was
especially hard hit by the Great Depression of the 1930s (Thompson &
Seager, 1985).
Federal government policies adopted to combat the
Depression exacerbated the economic difficulties of the Canadian West, which
relied heavily on agriculture and the export of raw materials (Smiley, 1963).
By 1931, relatively early in the Depression,
Provincial elections in late 1933 brought to power a
Liberal Party government which promised a "new deal" and which
represented a distinct shift to the left in provincial politics. The Premier
described his position as "socialized capitalism" and spoke in terms
of a "war on poverty" (Thompson & Seager, 1985, p. 242). The
government may properly be described as having a small "1" liberal
point of view, and as combining "the philosophy of 19th century liberalism
with its respect for individual rights and the point of view of the 20th
century that planning must go into the new social order" (Ormsby, 1964, p.
460). (The new Premier of B. C., T. D. Pattullo, told his friends that Franklin
Roosevelt, in preparing his inaugural address, must have been studying Liberal
campaign literature in B. C.!)
Like most governments which place a great deal of
emphasis on social planning, the Liberal Pattullo administration attached
importance to the utilization of experts from outside government in developing
the "new social order" which it had promised (Ormsby, 1964; Thompson
& Seager, 1985). In selecting his Minister of Education (who was also
appointed Provincial Secretary), he was able to choose someone who was himself
an expert (not a common occurrence in the parliamentary system). This was Dr.
George Weir, the former co-chair of a landmark government commission of inquiry
which studied the B. C. school system in 1924-25 and produced a report which
had substantial impact for at least 30 years (Johnson, 1964). Weir had been
appointed professor of education at the
With respect to the field of adult education, Weir
already had in place in his Department two outstanding individuals. The first
was John Kyle, who had been in charge of technical education and night schools
since 1913, having previously given leadership to the pioneering work of the
Vancouver School Board's adult education program. The other was J. W. Gibson,
the director of correspondence education, who was in the process of
transforming the Department's work in that field into one of the most
outstanding programs of its kind in the world (Selman, 1988). Weir further
strengthened the team by hiring, again from the Vancouver Board, Mr. Ian
Eisenhardt, who was to lead in the creation of what became an
internationally-renowned provincial recreation program, "Pro-Rec" (
AIMS AND ACHIEVEMENTS
In those Depression years, to a degree which has not
been achieved since, adult education became an important instrument of
government policy. This is not to say that enormous sums of money were spent on
it by today's standards, or that anything approaching today's variety of
institutional programs was available. Rather it is intended to point out that
there was a clear connection between the political platform of the government
and its actions in adult education; between the rhetoric of its overall
policies and that used to describe the new measures which it undertook in adult
education. In many respects, other measures enacted in the early months of the
new government's tenure--an increase in the "relief" payments; a Work
and Wages Act which included a raise in the minimum wage; financial assistance
to key industries which were in trouble; a start on economic planning and a
study of an unemployment insurance scheme; negotiations with Ottawa concerning
altered tax arrangements; and the launching of major public works
projects--were clearly more spectacular steps towards "a new deal"
than actions taken in adult education (Ormsby, 1964; Sutherland, 1960). But
many measures were initiated in the field of adult education which were clearly
aspects of an overall strategy on the part of the government intended to
promote the desired "new social order": e.g., free courses of
instruction in vocational subjects; courses in household arts (and free
material to work with) for mothers of families on relief; and a vast new
recreational program intended to build up the "morale" of the people.
An indication of. the
consciousness of the special quality of some of these measures was that in the
reports of the Department of Education at this time, the new, special programs
were dealt with in a separate section (called "adult education") and
reported on separately from the traditional "Night School" and
"Correspondence" work. As well, the Minister appointed an advisory
committee containing community representatives, whose responsibility related
only to the new programs being undertaken.
A second noteworthy and unprecedented feature of the
adult education projects created by the new government was its general goal.
The phrase most frequently used in the various government reports of the period
spoke in terms of addressing "the morale of the people." Reports on
the innovative recreation program organized by the province spoke of aiming
"to build up the morale and character" of participants, and on
another occasion of "maintaining morale" (British Columbia Public
Schools Report [BCPSR], 1934-35, p. 75; 1938-39, p. 79). An overall report
on adult education for 1934-35 referred to "the preservation of their
skill, self-respect and morale" (p. 68). And a report on the Self-Help
project, which will be described later, stated that it was aimed at
"preserving the morale of the people" (BCPSR, 1936-37, p. 78).
There are at least two points to be emphasized in
this connection. The chief of these, for present purposes, is that the goal of
this work was conceived at the time as being related to the whole person. The
goal was not described, as is generally the case in adult education, as having
to do with one or more of the social roles of the adult--as worker, parent,
citizen, or homemaker-but with the person as a total entity-how adult citizens
felt about themselves and their society. This tends not to be the way we think
of the functions of adult education, and is certainly not the feature of it which
we use to "sell" the importance of the field. In the case of
The other point to be considered is that such
language being used in reference to the goals of adult education is very much a
reflection of the liberal point of view so typical of the Western democracies
in this period (and since). The matter is seen very much in individualistic
terms. Also, there was lurking behind such terminology the ever-present
connotation that it was vital to help people be in better spirits, better
"morale," in the then current times of trouble, rather than have them
succumb to the blandishments of those advocating the overthrow of the system.
Depending on one's inclination, one can see these programs, therefore, as arising
from altruistic concern about the citizens' welfare, or from the fear that
unless something was done to cheer people up, they might turn to the voices of
the far left--or the far right--alternatives which were very lively specters
during the thirties (Lower, 1953; Mann, 1978; Thompson & Seager, 1985). Most
observers see a combination of altruism and political realism in the approach.
Although the worst years of the Depression brought a
falling off in the more traditional adult education activities such as school
board night schools (Wales, 1958), the new Liberal administration started a
number of new ventures and began to provide financial support for a number of
what it judged to be particularly worthwhile projects in the private sector.
Foremost among the activities under direct sponsorship were a range of
vocationally-oriented training programs which were offered free of charge
(mainly through school board night school programs) to persons who were on
relief or social assistance of some kind. The list of vocational subjects
offered is a long one, and concentrates largely on occupations related to the
industries of the province. Among these, incidentally, was a considerable surge
of interest in small scale and low tech gold mining procedures--a mark of the
times, and the region. Secondly, the Minister gave strong support to J. W.
Gibson, his able officer in charge of correspondence education, providing
increased resources and enabling his unit, which served both children and
adults, greatly to shift the emphasis to the latter. During this period, the
Correspondence Branch of the Department enhanced its already considerable
reputation in this work. An entirely new field of activity for the Department
was the sponsorship and servicing of local play-reading groups throughout the
province. By 1939, 177 adult groups were operating (in addition to an even
larger parallel service being run at the time by the University Extension
Department) (Selman, 1976). A major new venture of the period for the
Department was a "Provincial Recreation" program, known as
"Pro-Rec." This was announced in late 1934, was based on a
Scandinavian model, and was the first program of its kind in
1934-35, p. 75). And finally, in this list of
directly-sponsored activities, reference should be made to the fact that the
Department provided a number of teachers and a great deal of teaching material
for educational work conducted within the "Relief Camps" for
unemployed men which were being operated throughout Canada during this period
by the Canadian government (Swettenham, 1968; Thompson & Seager, 1985).
The fourth noteworthy characteristic of the new
measures taken in adult education at this time was the willingness demonstrated
by the Department of Education to enter into various kinds of arrangements with
the voluntary sector in the delivery of new types of service. There had been a
tendency in
There were a number of such partnerships created;
four will be mentioned as examples. The Vancouver Council of Women, a
coordinating and joint action vehicle for women's organizations in Canada, had
created a project in early 1933 which involved forming small groups of mothers
of families on relief for the combined purpose of providing social contacts and
teaching the women how to stretch their resources by means of clothing
remodeling, furniture repair and recovering, knitting, weaving, preparing
nutritious meals on low budgets, and other household arts. Donations of materials
from commercial companies arranged by the Council of Women made it possible to
maintain the program at very low cost--and without charge to the members of the
groups. This program was known as "Self-Help," and in addition to the
regular weekly working meetings of the small groups which have been described,
other clubs and activity groups formed-pottery
making, choirs, play reading, and acting groups. Generally, the program had the
effect not only of teaching practical skills, but also of providing a basis for
new friendships and associations and a time away from household routines. By
the end of the first year of operation, some 257 women were involved in the
program. The Department of Education, seeing the practical and psychological
value of such work and realizing that the project simply could not function
without the volunteer leadership of Council of Women members, proposed that
government funds be donated both to pay for the consumable supplies which were required
for the classes (on an increasingly large scale) and to provide an office and
coordinator for the work. This blend of voluntary effort and government support
proved entirely satisfactory and continued until the early years of the War. At
its peak (1937-38) the program involved 1,691 women, and when it was terminated
in 1942, over 8,000 women had been involved (BCPSR for years mentioned).
Other projects will be more briefly described. The
Vancouver YWCA began a series of three-month programs to train unemployed women
who wished to get jobs as maids or housekeepers. The government approached the
organization and arranged to cover some of the costs of the training, while
leaving the operation of the program in the YWCA's hands. An
interdenominational men's Christian organization, the AOTS (As One That
Serveth) was financed by the Department so it could operate a "polytechnic
school" for unemployed men in downtown
The other dimension of liaison with the voluntary
sector took a different form. It was the decision on the part of the Minister
to appoint an advisory committee to give the Department advice on the
development of its adult education activities. This was the first time such a
committee had been established, and it appears to have been concerned not with
the longer-established work (night schools, correspondence courses), but only
with the special measures being taken to respond to the Depression emergency.
The committee was made up of a mixture of Department officials and
representatives of community organizations. It remained in existence for only
three years-during the depth of the Depression. (Such a
committee was not appointed again by the Department until 1978.)
In these four respects--adult education as a
significant instrument of government policy; the philosophical thrust behind
its measures; the creation of new adult education services; and new kinds of
partnerships with the private and voluntary sector--the approach of the Liberal
administration and the responsible minister, George Weir, were innovative, and
may appropriately be seen as a clear response to the traumatic Depression
conditions. Certainly they stand out in sharp contrast to the activities of the
preceding Conservative government. A few dimensions of this work, such as the
Self-Help program and the recreation program, carried on into the World War II
period, but by the end of the War no trace remained of either of these special
programs or the philosophical and policy stance which had been adopted by the
Liberal government. (Pattullo and Weir left office in 1941.)
Of course, the wartime conditions of full employment removed the need for many
of these measures.
How are we to see this phenomenon which took place
during the Depression years, and which presumably was
duplicated in at least some of its aspects in other jurisdictions? As has been
suggested earlier, there are at least two views which can be taken. On the one
hand, the measures adopted by the Liberal government and the Department of
Education may be seen as a case of government responding to the desperate needs
of many persons and families who were at risk in the bleak conditions of the
Depression years. Others have preferred to stress the view that such "new
deal" approaches were based primarily on fears, on the part of Western
governments, that if things were not done to alleviate the desperate conditions
in which many citizens found themselves, they would espouse radical ideas and seek
the overthrow of the present system. As one student of education in the
province in these years has put it, this was a case of the state looking to its
own "protection and perpetuation" (Mann, 1978, p. 105). These two
views concerning the motivation of governments in this period are not mutually
exclusive.
Both of the projects undertaken, and the language
used to describe and justify them, appear to fall in the classic liberal
philosophical tradition. The approach was in terms of promoting individual welfare
and was not directed at the social system as a whole. The concept was one of
providing "relief" and boosting the morale of individuals, not
addressing the nature of the society which had produced the crisis. (Other
elements in society were of course taking this other approach.) The emphasis
was on getting people through the crisis, not on transforming the society in
any significant way. The goal was the stability of the state, not changing it
(Macpherson, 1965).
This having been said, however, one of the most
intriguing elements of the story of these Depression years is the fact that, to
a degree perhaps unequalled at any other time in the modern adult education
movement, leaders in government and public service had a purpose for their
efforts in adult education which involved the whole person. Whether it was
rhythmic gymnastics, English as a second language, vocational training, or
skill courses for homemakers, the reasons stated for delivering the services
were consistent: to improve the morale of the people. The intention here is not
to engage in polemic about the appropriateness or justifiability of such an
aim, but rather to point out its unusual character. To a degree unequalled in
any other period since the emergence of the modern adult education movement,
the purpose of the public authorities in the field were stated in terms of the total
sensibilities of adult persons and how they felt about themselves and their
society.
REFLECTIONS FROM THE 1980s
The B. C. Context
The passage of some 50 years since these events makes
possible considerable perspective on the nature and uniqueness of the actions
of the Liberal administration in that earlier period. We see their initiatives
now out of our experience with a vastly expanded, considerably professionalized
and institutionalized field of adult education. Also, we now have the context
of a society with a welfare "safety net," which was not in place
during the desperate thirties.
It is reasonable to ask whether the significant
actions taken during the thirties were built upon in subsequent decades or in
any way can be seen to have influenced subsequent actions by government. Such
questions do not lend themselves to precise or definitive answers. But it is
likely reasonable to state that there has been little, if any, influence that
has carried over. The reasons are not hard to find; conditions have altered
greatly. The Depression was followed by the crisis of World War II, and, in
many respects, the wartime experience obliterated the conditions which had been
brought on by the Depression. In the post-war period the economy was booming,
and employment was at a high level, at least until the late fifties. By that
time a conservative government was in power in the province (Social Credit
Party) and, except for a brief interlude in the early 1970s, has remained in
power ever since. Economic conditions have varied over the years, but we have
not experienced a Depression of the depth and duration of that of the thirties
(though the one of the early 1980s was severe), and when such times have come,
most people have been protected to some degree by the welfare measures in
place. So conditions have been different, and the social philosophy
of the governments in power have been different.
A further point which should be made is that there
has been little in the way of permanent' or declared official policy in the
field of adult education in the province. Several pieces of legislation
authorize or allow public institutions to be engaged in adult education, but
little is said beyond that. There has been lots of administrative action in
support of adult education activity but very little stated policy. A concerted
effort to correct this situation was launched by government in 1979, but was in
the end overtaken by the economic recession of the early eighties and
government's determination to downsize the scope of government action (Cassidy,
1984; Selman, 1984).
The first characteristic of government action in the
1930s, which was identified above, was that government utilized adult education
as a significant instrument of government policy. This has at no time been the
case in the subsequent period. Adult education has been a thriving enterprise
in
The proclivity of government in the thirties to see
the role of adult education as supporting the overall outlook of the citizen
has not recurred. The conditions have not ever been the same as in the
thirties, and governments in the province have been business-oriented and
conservative in their views. Certain national cultural institutions such as the
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation and the National Film Board have seen
themselves in such a role, but government at the provincial level has not. The
closest we have come to it, perhaps, has been in the approach adopted by
continuing education leaders in the Ministry of Education in the late seventies
in their efforts on behalf of certain disadvantaged groups--the undereducated,
those in need of English as a second language, older people, and single-parent
families below the poverty line (Cassidy, 1984). What was true of the
continuing education unit in the Ministry was not true of the government as a
whole, however.
In the category of innovation in the types of adult
education services provided by government, certainly there have been
significant developments in the subsequent decades, and very great expansion,
but except for the measures just mentioned, this has
not been an outstanding feature of the field. The school boards, colleges and
institutes, and universities have been enabled to expand their offerings over
the years, and participation rates in adult education in B. C. are among the
highest in
The fourth remarkable feature of the thirties was the
variety of alliances which were created between the public and private sectors.
There has been comparatively little of this since that time. During the
progress of a comprehensive study of adult education in the province which was
conducted by a government-appointed committee in 1976 (B. C. Ministry of
Education, 1976), some committee members wished to submit recommendations in
this area, but were steered off this course of action by Ministry officials,
who said it was out of the question and would get in the way of implementing
other proposals. The matter was shunted to a category "requiring further
investigation" (which it has not received). When a Ministry Advisory
Committee on Adult Education was created in 1978, its membership was made up
entirely of professional educators from the public educational institutions.
The Broader Context
Looking back on the 1930s from the present period,
one is struck by a link between the grounds for policy which were expressed in
It should be mentioned by way of introduction to this
discussion that there has been a thread running through the literature of
liberal adult education for some decades which comes close to reflecting the
philosophical position being identified here. The same can be said of some
elements of the human potential movement. What we are focusing on here,
however, are attempts to develop or propose a public policy which is
grounded in a view of the whole person rather than the person in his/her
various (usually compartmentalized) social roles.
In the early 1960s Alan Thomas, who was Director of
the Canadian Association for Adult Education (CAAE) for most of the decade,
burst onto the Canadian adult education scene as a thinker of dynamic and original
ideas. He drew on the ideas of John Dewey, Marshall McLuhan, and Roby Kidd. If
his message were to be summed up in a phrase, it would be the one he used as
the title for his address to the landmark National Conference on Adult
Education in
Thomas' views, which may be described as liberal in
philosophical terms, were based on the transforming power of learning in the
lives of individuals and on the "saving" potential of learning if it
is harnessed to public and social purposes. At a time approximately a decade
prior to the more internationally visible final report of the UNESCO Faure
Commission, Learning to Be (UNESCO, 1972), Thomas was exploring many of
the same ideas. A few brief quotations from some of his writings will convey
the direction of his thinking:
The only human, dignified
way to respond to change is by learning (1961).
Learning, the true
currency of post-industrial society. . . . (1961).
Learning together always
breeds effective relationships among men (1964).
. . . a
whole new moral code, of which learning and competence are cornerstones (1965).
Morality lies in the
learning, in the activity itself, and not in the effect of the subject matter
(1966).
In every act of learning
there is both an act of surrender and a great release of energy (1970). (quoted in Selman, 1985, pp. 11-12)
The point being made here is that in the work of
Thomas, an approach to public policy and adult learning was being developed
which shared some elements--in terms of the relevance to "the whole
person"--with the position adopted back in the 1930s. Some of the same
ideas are found in the work of Roby Kidd in the sixties as well, especially in
his text for the field, first published in 1959, and in his remarkable lectures
delivered in Saskatchewan in 1966 (Kidd, 1959; 1966). In the case of both Kidd
and Thomas, we see a shift in focus from education to learning, from
pedagogy to mathematics. And in the work of both there is an emphasis on the
impact of the act of learning on the total human personality.
By the end of the sixties, there was emerging in the
work of the Council of Europe and UNESCO a very similar point of view. The
Council of Europe's development of the concept of education permanente put
particular emphasis on the cultural and personal impact of lifelong learning
(Kallen, 1979; Simpson, 1972). Although UNESCO's sustained work on lifelong
education had relevance to many schools of thought about adult life and
educational policies, they have come to be strongly identified with a
liberal-humanistic view (Knapper & Cropley, 1985).
Paul Lengrand was the chief architect of UNESCO's
early work on the concepts of lifelong education and lifelong learning.
Rereading his first published statement on the subject, An Introduction to
Lifelong Education (1970), one is reminded of the "sense of
crisis" to which he was clearly responding. Although the nature of that
crisis at the end of the 1960s
was very different from that of
the 1930s, there was somewhat the same sense of rallying people to the nature
of the urgent situation and of the need for maintaining morale in the face of
the forces at work. Lengrand expressed concern about the human condition and
the many challenges facing society. People must go on learning "if they do
not want to find themselves on the losing side" (p. 9). In words very
reminiscent of the Depression, Lengrand speaks of the need "to help humans
to become more fully themselves" and of the dangers of boredom;
"boredom is to the soul as perilous, as fatal an evil as is a virus to the
organism" (pp. 21-22). He emphasized the role which learning can play in
man "resuming control of himself" and in putting the emphasis on
"being rather than on having" (pp. 40-41). It would be possible to
push too far with the attempt to see connections between the mentality of the
Depression and that of the emergence in recent decades of the current concept
of lifelong learning, but there is certainly a similar sense of response to
crisis and a clear thread of liberal or liberal-humanist ideology present in
both cases. Further insight into the sense of crisis prevailing at the time is
provided by works such as P. H. Coombs' The World Educational Crisis: A Systems Analysis, which had been published in 1968.
In 1972 the report of UNESCO's International
Commission on the Development of Education, entitled Learning to Be in
the English version, burst upon the world of educational planning. As in the
case of Lengrand's earlier work, the seven commissioners were obviously deeply
impressed by the dangers facing contemporary society and, as well, by the
varied critiques of existing educational systems which had appeared on the
world scene in both the developing and the more industrialized countries. In
terms which spoke clearly to the experience of the 1930s, the report pointed
out that education had been "the select instrument by means of which
existing values and balances of power have been maintained" (UNESCO, 1972,
p. 55) and that no political system could "forego securing its foundations
through its educational systems and other means" (p. 150). The report
developed the notions of lifelong learning/education and that of "the
learning society," professing a belief in "scientific humanism"
as a basis for action. It emphasized as well the need to shift from a
pedagogical perspective to one of mathetics. Among the basic assumptions stated
at the outset of their report was that "only an over-all lifelong
education" could allow the individual to cope in the modern world and that
the aim of the person must be "to build up a continually developing body
of knowledge, all through life—‘learn to be’" (p. vi). Although the
various roles which the adult plays in life were fully acknowledged in the
report, the focus kept coming back to the individual man and woman, their view
of themselves and of their society.
Following the publication of Learning to Be, UNESCO
asked its Institute for Education in
Only two other studies which have emerged from
UNESCO's explanation of the concept of lifelong education will be referred to.
In a volume edited by A. J. Cropley, Towards a System of Lifelong Education (1980),
a number of themes dealt with are relevant to the experience of the 1930s. One
is the elaboration of the "lifewide" as well as the lifelong
dimension of such a system and the redefinition that is required of public and
private elements of the field. The reaching out for new relationships with the
voluntary sector, which we saw in
It may be pointed out, in
conclusion, that while in recent years such humanistic views have influenced or
infused much of the literature of lifelong education/learning, we have at the
same time been hearing a somewhat complementary view from the analytical
philosophy school of writers about adult education. In an early statement of
the analytic school, Values, Education and the Adult by R. W. K.
Paterson (1979), the author states the case: "Education.
. . directly touches our personal being, tending our identity at its roots, and
ministering directly to our condition as conscious selves. . ." (p. 15).
Another prominent proponent of the analytical approach, Kenneth Lawson (1982),
comments that "education implies a concern for moral and evaluative issues
consistent with a humanistic approach" (p. 97).
It is clear that in many ways over the last 30 years,
the literature concerning lifelong learning and the learning society has
devoted considerable attention to themes which were prominent in the "new
deal," Depression years of the Liberal government in British Columbia. It
is of course not the intention to claim any causal relationship between the two
phenomena, but rather to note some common themes--most notably the emphasis on
learning's impact on the whole person and the new kind of relationship between
the public and private sectors of providers which is required in "the
learning society."
REFERENCES
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Arnold, T. C. (1973). The status and
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B. C. Ministry of Education. (1976). Report
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Canadian Association for Adult
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of Adults in
Cassidy, F. (Ed.). (1984). Creating
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Coombs, P. H. (1968). The world educational
crisis: A systems analysis.
Cropley, A. J. (Ed.). (1980). Towards
a system of lifelong education.
Dave, R. H. (Ed.). (1976). Foundations
of lifelong education.
Dr. George Weir speaks to rotary. (1932, March 9).
Johnson, F. H. (1964). A history of public
education in British Columbia.
Kallen, D. (1979). Recurrent education and lifelong
learning: Definitions and distinctions. In T. Schuller & J. Megarry (Eds.),
Recurrent education and lifelong learning (pp.
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Kidd, J. R. (1966). The
implications of continuous learning.
Knapper, C. K., & Cropley, A.
J. (1985). Lifelong learning and higher education.
Lawson, K. (1982). Lifelong education: Concept or policy. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 1(2), 97-108.
Lengrand, P. (1970). An
introduction to lifelong education.
Lower, A. R. M. (1953). Colony
to nation.
Macpherson, C. B. (1965). The
real world of democracy.
Mann, J. S. (1978). Progressive
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Paterson, R. W. K. (1979). Values,
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Robin, M. (1972). The rush for spoils.
Selman, G. (1976). Adult education in
Selman, G. (1984).
Government's role in adult education: Two periods of active leadership in
Selman, G. (1985). Alan
Thomas and the Canadian Association for Adult Education, 1961-1970.
Selman, G. (1988). Invisible
Giant: A history of adult education in British .
Simpson, J. A. (1972). Today and
tomorrow in European adult education.
Smiley,
D. V. (1963). The Rowell/Sirois Report: Book 1.
Sutherland, J. N. (1960). T. D.
Pattullo as Party Leader. Unpublished
master's thesis,
Swettenham, J. (1968). McNaughton (Vol. 1).
Thomas, A. (1961). The learning
society. In National Conference on Adult Education
in
Thomas, A. (1985). Learning in
society, in Canadian Commission for UNESCO. Learning in Society:
Toward a New Paradigm,
Thompson, J. H., & Seager, A.
(1985).
UNESCO (1972). Learning to Be.
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