THE ELDERLY LEARNER

 

Roger Hiemstra, Professor

Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY

 

This paper was presented at the National Adult Education Conferences, Anaheim, California, October 29, 1981.

(Some subjects were followed for several years)

 

THE ELDERLY LEARNER

 

The Setting

 

Introduction

 

Today's fastest growing minority cohort in the United States is the older adult. Almost 12% of the population is over 64. This 23 million plus number is growing daily by about 1000 people. Some demographers even predict up to half of the population will be 50 or older in about 25 years (Peterson, 1976). Thus, the U.S. will soon have the oldest population in history.

Unfortunately, many negative stereotypes or myths about aging permeate our culture. Helplessness, waning years in institutions, loss of interests, disengagement from life's activities, and loss of intellect are some associations people make with old age. A growing interest in aging recently has resulted in some rigorous challenging of many negative views. McClusky (1974) says many myths are being dispelled and that older persons generally are active, intelligent, and involved with positive feelings of self and personal potential.

Thus, much current literature about older adults as learners is very positive in nature with only a slow decline in intelligence with age reported (Jones, 1979). Once intelligence test speed factors are removed, intelligence change does not appear age related (Bolton, 1978). Some studies have even shown little loss and some actual gain in tests of vocabulary, general information, verbal reasoning, experience, and judgment with age (Jones, 1979). It appears that later life intelligence is best characterized by plasticity and flexibility rather than universal decline (Labouvie-Vief, 1976).

Older adults also appear to exercise this intelligence quite extensively. I earlier reported that older adults typically spend 300 or more hours annually in learning endeavors (Hiemstra, 1975, 1976). Ralston (1978) found that even when older adults were divided fairly equally by race, sex, and socioeconomic status, they spent about 250 hours a year in learning activities. Birren and Woodruff (1973) and McMahon (1979) suggest that rapidity of social change, changing career patterns, and changing attitudes toward education are some major reasons for this heavy involvement in learning. Such changes should only intensify in the future, most likely resulting in even more learning activity.

As described above, much is now known about older adults as learners. However, little is known regarding specific characteristics of, what constitutes "success" in, and factors that may have contributed to being a life long learner. Thus, the primary objective of this research is to study several older persons reputed to be highly successful learners in their naturalistic settings and determine through a qualitative research technique if there are some characteristics common among them. Determining such characteristics should enable adult educators, higher educators, human service practitioners, government workers, and older adults, themselves, to better plan educational programs, resources, and approaches. Indeed, it is quite probable that achieving this objective may facilitate a greater tapping of America's wisdom endowment.

 

Rationale

 

Historical knowledge about adults as learners reads much like western pioneering efforts; frontiers constantly are being pushed further out. Thorndike's (1928) pioneering research resulted in optimistic reports of only a gradual decline in learning ability until age 45, when a sharp decline could be expected. More comfort came from Jones and Conrad's (1933) Army Alpha Test research which revealed that general decline continued until age 60 rather than 45. Even more optimistic were longitudinal research reports of the fifties. Terman and Oden (1959), for example, demonstrated some actual gains with age on several cognitive measures.

In the early 1960's, an explosion in research on the older adult began. The earlier studies had been tied primarily to stimulus-response notions of human behavior, or what Hultsch (1977) calls the "associative" model. Learning and memory were believed responsive to learning stimuli; differences related to age were thought associated with various types of interferences. The next evolutionary change began emerging in the mid-sixties, when notions about the human organism were inserted in the S-R model. McClusky (1971) described the Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) formula as a key to unlocking a door to communicating and interacting with learners. Hultsch (1977) calls this the "information processing" model. Individual differences in intellectual decline were believed tied to both cognitive and non-cognitive factors.

A new stage currently appears to be evolving. Labouvie-Vief (1977) suggested that much past research had built-in biases because many subjects were born in historical eras devoid of several rapid change issues. Today's older subject has experienced increasing complexity throughout life. The importance of developmental stages, interest in life-span education, under standing of success or failure in learning, research on cognitive development, and cognitive style differences are all related events. It may well be that this newest stage -- and the paying attention to ways of optimizing successful cognitive development throughout life -- will offer professionals interested in working with older adults the most future help.

Hultsch (1977) offered a name for this latest stage, "contextual," and suggested that social and psychological contexts of learning events (i.e., what the individual experiences) are extremely important. Thus, learning is the transaction between each individual and his or her restructuring of personal knowledge in light of new learnings. The research described here and the ongoing effort hopefully will provide some new insight into the contextual meaning of older adult's learning activities and the societal potential of a lifetime's accumulated wisdom by understanding more about what individuals do experience in their learning endeavors.

 

Significance for the Field

 

Tremendously important to people wishing for success in working with older persons is recognition that individual differences among older adults exist. The elderly simply cannot be treated as a single group; they should be viewed as heterogeneous, multi-dimensional in characteristics, and varied in terms of needs and abilities. While elderly people often appear as victims of stereotyping in terms of ability (Kasworm, 1978), some people in their seventh, eighth, and even ninth decades will do as well or better than many younger people (Arenberg & Robertson-Tchabo, 1977).

Important, too, is the fact that most of the research reviewed in this paper and, indeed, most of the research about older adult learners that has been reported anywhere has been quantitative in nature. In other words, researchers have tested to see how well older learners fit predetermined or theorized modes of behavior. This research uses qualitative techniques to seek out answers to different types of questions. Qualitative research approaches the finding of answers through a phenomenological, naturalistic model and seeks to build an understanding of important modes of behavior with out prejudging or predicting that behavior.

Thus, this research helps to delineate both important differences and commonalities among older persons as learners, adds to theoretical understandings about learning throughout life, and aids in the development of literature, approaches to instructional technology, and professional expertise in working with older persons. Perhaps the major contribution will be opening up some new areas of study for both quantitative and qualitative researchers.

 

The Study Design

 

Research Plan

 

I have carried out several studies of older adults as learners (Hiemstra, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1976, 1977/78, 1980; Hiemstra & Brown, 1979). In these writings I have stressed the lifelong potential for and pursuit of learning. In the fall of 1975 I received a sabbatical leave from the University of Nebraska and embarked on a longitudinal study of several elderly learners. My intent was to develop some understanding of what characterizes successful older learners, to develop some benchmark information for use in longitudinal follow-up efforts, and to synthesize some implications for educators who work with older adults. Underlying this entire effort was my desire to better understand and to highlight significant qualitative aspects of being, and perhaps preparing to be, a successful elderly learner.

I began by deciding how to proceed with this effort to identify important characteristics of, commonalities among, and implications from older adult learners. Although I had previously and have since carried out quantitative studies through questionnaire or interview approaches, I decided to employ a different approach, one that would not only provide some descriptive information but also one that would provide some explanation of any key qualitative factors related to success as an older learner.

Thus, "grounded theory," was chosen as the conceptual model (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). I was first attracted to this research model after reading a seminal article by Mezirow (1971). There have since been a few other excellent writings in adult education on the grounded theory technique (Darkenwald, 1980; Mezirow, Darkenwald, & Knox, 1975). Unfortunately, in my estimation, there have not been many reported research efforts involving the grounded theory model.

The grounded theory model is inductive in nature and utilizes both interview and participant observation techniques in natural settings to build theory grounded on the data rather than testing existing theory or describing empirical phenomena. Thus, the model: involves comparative analyses to determine some generalizable explanations for the social phenomena being studied. The researcher in this technique goes to the subjects to gather and look at information with a minimum of predetermined theoretical expectations. Similarities and differences among the subjects are sought until several conceptual categories and their attributes are understood. It is believed that the resulting themes and, when possible to ascertain. Grounded theory will provide useful sets of generalizations and suggest obvious implications for practice.

 

Methodology

 

In deciding to employ the grounded theory model, I also committed myself to beginning a longitudinal study of older adult learners. My first step was to select a sample of older learners. I purposely selected individuals who were known or thought to be successful as learners in their later years. I asked professionals who worked in educational gerontology, staff members of an Area Agency on Aging, and two nursing home administrators to identify people who they deemed as successful older learners. I suggested some general criteria as being active in learning, having been learning all their lives, and likely to enjoy engaging in a research study to guide the selections. I wanted individuals who are thought to be successful but I resisted providing more specific criteria like high amounts of formal education, certain occupational or income categories, and current activity in learning. As a matter of fact, I was interested to see how other people would interpret “success” in terms of elderly learners and how difficult it would be to obtain a list of names. A long list of names was obtained in only a few days.

I quickly obtained by telephone or by personal visit the permission and willingness of 30 Iowa or Nebraska residents in their sixties, seventies, eighties, or nineties. Initial case study data were obtained over a two month period utilizing in-depth interviews, participant observations, and good listening skills. The interviewing followed an unstructured format where probing and open-ended questions were used in an attempt to better understand the participants' views and interpretations regarding success in learning. Participant observation is a research tool where intense social interaction between the researcher and each subject takes place within naturalistic settings such as participant's homes (Bogdan and Taylor, 1975). Subsequent visits, letters, and phone calls have provided periodic follow-up information. Some 200 pages of handwritten notes, 60 hours of audio tape conversation, and numerous pages of preliminary analyses have been compiled. In addition, coded material has been transcribed onto McBee Key Sort cards for assisting with comparison needs.

Two trained coders working independent of each other and of me at separate time frames have been employed to cross-check and verify the meanings and interpretations of categories, themes, and emerging hypotheses. In addition, two other colleagues have dialogued with me on the data, the categories, and the meanings of any important findings. To date, the data have yielded several categories, themes, or conceptual elements. Emerging is a beginning under standing of success and increased knowledge regarding the importance of several personal characteristics or the heritage one is given in life. However, fully saturated categories, a clear explanation of all relevant/properties, and a well integrated set of theoretical propositions still remain to be developed. Thus, the study goes on. What you will receive today is a report of my under standing and thinking to date.

 

The Subjects

 

Table 1 provides a summary of various characteristics for the study subjects. If a composite picture female subject was in home with her spouse, can be drawn from the available information, the typical her seventies, of average income, living in her own a college graduate, and had taught school as her main source of income. No female perceived that home making was her primary role in life. The typical male was very similar except that although teaching still was noted often, professional backgrounds were varied. Thus, highly educated subjects, many with connections in some way to teaching, made up the bulk of the subjects. Later information, tables, and corresponding comments will delve into other personal characteristics such as health status, the intensity of involvement in learning, and professional background.

 

Table 1. Various Personal Characteristics of the Study’s Subjects at the Time of the Initial Interview (1975)

 

Characteristic

Male

Female

Percent

Gender

12

18

--

Age:

 

 

 

Sixties

02

01

10.00

Seventies

09

12

70.00

Eighties

00

03

10.00

Nineties

01

02

10.00

(Range = 67-96; Average Age = 76.13)

 

 

 

Income Status:a

 

 

 

Below Average

01

02

10.00

Average

07

08

50.00

Above Average

05

07

40.00

Living Arrangements:

 

 

 

Apartment

01

06

23.33

Own Home

09

10

63.33

Living With Relative

01

00

03.33

Nursing Home

01

01

06.67

Retirement Village

00

01

03.33

Marital Status:b

 

 

 

Married/Living With Spouse

08

08

53.33

Widowed

03

06

30.00

Never Married

01

04

16.67

Years of Education:

 

 

 

Some College

03

05

26.67

College Graduate

03

07

33.33

Graduate Training/Masters

03

04

23.33

Doctorate/Medical Degree

03

02

16.67

Profession/Occupationc

 

 

 

Medical Doctor

01

00

03.33

Engineer

02

00

06.67

County Extension Agent

01

00

03.33

College Professor

01

04

16.67

Public School Teaching

03

08

36.67

Public School Administration

02

00

06.67

Consultant/Small Business Owner

00

02

06.67

Insurance Agent

01

00

03.33

Author/Newspaper Reporter

00

01

03.33

Postal Service Employee

01

00

03.33

Bookkeeper

00

01

03.33

Advertising Employee

00

01

03.33

Secretary

00

01

03.33

aDetermined by the author based on answers to interview questions and personal observations. The categories are arbitrary and only provided for rough comparison purposes. Actual income figures were not obtained.

bFive married couples are included within the study population.

cDetermined by the author based on answers to direct questions about or inferences to work. Only what the interviewee or author believe to have been the primary occupational reference point is shown. Several subjects had more than one “occupation” during their working years.

 

Categories

 

One of the goals of the grounded theory researcher is to use comparative analysis techniques to build substantive theories that will have some general applicability. The building of this data from field study allows the researcher to develop an analytic description of human behavior as it exists in naturalistic settings. However, it should be noted that the subjects examined in this study were fairly well educated and more likely to exhibit features of learning activity if one accepts that education begets education.

Even given the homogeneous nature of subjects' educational backgrounds, there is much to be learned from an examination for other commonalities and for any differences. This process of learning from the subjects (in a sense they are co-researchers) to build toward useful theories is long and arduous. Considerable rigor was used in building several categories. Cross-checking audio tapes, re-reading field notes, utilizing the input of independent judges, and follow-up contact with subjects were employed in the building process. Thus, it is believed that considerable objectivity has been used in building and understanding the categories shown in this paper. Obviously, there is some subjectivity built into any study of human behavior, whether it is qualitative or quantitative in nature. Hopefully, such subjectivity has been minimized in this study.

Therefore, given the desire to be as rigorous as possible in building an understanding of meanings, the grounded theory approach calls for the researcher to begin a search for important categories by looking for various commonalities and differences. In this study several potential categories or common topics were derived during the interviews. The subsequent cross-checking and comparison efforts helped to fill in missing data or to suggest new categories. Because the richness of qualitative data comes from the words and thoughts of the subjects, themselves, some direct quotes will be interspersed throughout the next section to help describe how the researcher arrived at a decision or definition.

 

Major Themes

 

Personal Health

 

Several sub-categories for assessing a subject's health were developed. I only had to interview a few people to realize that several health-related factors appeared common and/or important. Thus, I attempted to construct a picture for comparison purposes of each person's physical, mental, and emotional health. I eventually arrived at ten distinct categories I believe to be representative of this personal health concept. Words in quote marks represent direct comments from a subject; "F.N." represents direct comments from my field notes.

 

Energy Level - a measure of perceived energy to pursue learning or other activities. "My energy is pretty good. I do have to be careful to get plenty of rest and take care of my diet which isn't a particular problem." "You will find that I'm in slow motion."

Vision - a measure of obvious or mentioned visual acuity. (F.N.) Some problems with seeing and learning. "I'm going up to Ames Saturday to see my eye surgeon. I had a cataract operation on both my eyes in the past few years and they aren't quite adjusted yet."

Hearing - a measure of obvious or mentioned hearing acuity. (F .N.) Hearing aid was used. “Well, the hearing aid doesn't solve all your problems."

Mobility - a measure of perceived or noticed mobility. (F.N.) He used a walker to move to another room and moved very slowly. "The worst trouble I've had lately is with my knees. I've had a couple of bad falls which seems to set off what seems to be arthritis in my knees."

Physical Health - a measure of perceived or observed overall physical health beyond the above measures. “I have had health problems, yes. I had a heart attack and a stroke, some lung surgery and so forth."

Mental Health - a measure of perceived, mentioned, and/or field noted mental vigor. (F.N.) A lot of bounce and energy. Obviously has a very alert mind. "Our granddaughter always says, 'Grandma has a thirsty mind. '"

Level of Relaxation - a measure of apparent ability to relax or stay calm during stressful times. "I read a lot in it; it’s sort of relaxing." "Things don't bother me anymore."

Enjoyment of Life - a measure of perceived or noted personal happiness in or satisfaction with life. "We love the theatre. It is so enjoyable." "I think that's one thing you have to do...be satisfied." (F.N.) Seemed so enthusiastic - so in love with life.

Enjoyment of self - a measure of perceived or noted thoughts about self concept or self-fulfillment. "I am pretty self-sufficient." "I'm fairly self-centered but don't believe that is bad."

Personal Grooming - a measure from field notes and personal observations of personal grooming and cleanliness. (F.N.) Beginning to show a lot of signs of cleanliness and grooming problems.

 

Using the above criteria and the types of data indicated from subjects' comments and my field notes, I assigned a low (L), medium (M) or high (H) rating for each person on each category. For example, some comments from a subject about difficulties in seeing or about cataract problems would result in a low rating. Similar comments about good vision or notes on how glasses corrected problems would result in a medium rating. Comments about vision being excellent or observations about never needing glasses or never having eye fatigue would result in a high rating. Similar decisions on the other categories were made from analyzing subjects' comments or field notes made during interviews, Occasional follow-up contact provided necessary information for verifying or completing a category rating. Obviously, there is a certain level of “arbitrariness” in assigning such ratings but I attempted consistency and received confirmation from the independent judges.

Thus, using Table 2 to display these interpretations and as a rough guide for comparison purposes, I suggest that what was common among the subjects was high mental alertness, a fairly high level of relaxation, good grooming habits, and a general enjoyment of life. Although the above may not be too surprising, what was surprising to the author was the fact that there were lots of differences on factors such as hearing ability, an assessment of overall physical health, and mobility, but not to the detriment of learning interests or activity.

 

Table 2. Personal Health Characteristics.a

 

Ageb

Gender

Energy

Level

Vision

Hearing

Mobility

Phys.

Health

Mental

Abilities

Level of

Relaxation

Enjoyment

of Life

Enjoyment

of Self

Personal

Grooming

75

Male

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

75

Female

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

81

Female

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

LOW

 MED.

 HI.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

72

Female

 HI.

 MED.

 HI.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

 MED.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

75

Male

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

 HI.

 MED.

 MED.

68

Female

 HI.

 MED.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 MED.

 MED.

72

Female

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

67

Male

 HI.

 MED.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 MED.

72

Female

 HI.

 MED.

 HI.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

71

Male

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

73

Male

 HI.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

 MED.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 MED.

75

Female

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

LOW

 HI.

 HI.

 MED.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

96

Female

 MED.

 MED.

LOW

LOW

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 MED.

74

Male

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

72

Female

 MED.

 MED.

LOW

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

76

Male

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

75

Female

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

93

Male

 MED.

 MED.

LOW

LOW

LOW

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

76

Female

 HI.

 MED.

 HI.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

77

Male

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

75

Female

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

 MED.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

75

Male

 MED.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 MED.

 HI.

 MED.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

71

Male

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

 HI.

 MED.

70

Female

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 MED.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

90

Female

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 MED.

78

Female

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

 MED.

 HI.

 HI.

 MED.

 HI.

 HI.

82

Female

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

LOW

LOW

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

72

Female

 MED.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 HI.

69

Male

 HI.

 MED.

 HI.

 HI.

 MED.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

87

Female

 MED.

LOW

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

aMED = Medium; HI = High.

bAge at the beginning of the research project, Fall, 1975.

 

Observation. Helping people to stay mentally active and positive about themselves throughout life may be the educator's greatest gift.

 

Intensity of Involvement in Learning

 

Several sub-categories related to the intensity of involvement in lifelong learning pursuits also seemed to emerge and were examined in much the same manner as described above.

 

Reading Level - a measure of reported or perceived involvement in reading activity. "Oh, I read everything that comes through my fingers!" "I don't know if we can be classified as heavy readers, but we're generally reading something.”

Worldly/Well traveled - a measure of how involved the subject was in traveling currently or in the recent past. “I use my travel in Europe to learn new ideas.” “I never take one of those guided tours (while in England or Europe) as you can learn more on your own.” (F.N.) As I was walking out the door she brought me her album and showed pictures of her trip to Greece where she studied antiques. "I went to the Holy Land in March."

Interest in World Affairs - a measure of reported or perceived interest in world wide activities. "That did give a lot of opportunity to learn about Mexico and the people."

Interest in Expressive Activity - a measure of reported or noted interest in or involvement with such activities as music, art, and great literature. "There is something about being able to sit down at the piano and play it yourself that satisfies like nothing else. I get a lot of pleasure in seeing if I can do the things I hear the concert artists do." (F.N.) They were both active in the Great Books program and showed me their monthly reading list on the classics. (F.N.) She noted in closing that she was going to California for another art course next month.

Active Study Pursuits - a measure of involvement in actual learning activities. "Any time I take a trip I take a notebook with me and I write down what I see along the way.

 

Actually, it was quite amazing to discover how much learning activity was underway. One 93 year old male with an agricultural background still was doing corn research. He had laboratory equipment and corn specimens all over his nursing home room. A 90 year old female has just started taking refresher piano lessons. A 73 year old male was doing research on wind energy and was constructing a wind generator in his son's backyard. The list goes on and on. Appendix A portrays four such individuals in more detail.

Table 3 shows my interpretations of all this involvement. As in Table 2, I used a low, medium, and high rating for rough comparison purposes. It would appear that several commonalities exist in that subjects generally were active readers, were actively engaged in study projects, and from my impressions, were carrying out a wide variety of learning activities. On the other hand, there did not appear to be a lot of commonalities in terms of traveling activity or interest in world affairs. Interest in expressive activities also was varied although several mentioned considerable involvement with art or music in earlier years. Being a literate or cultured person appears important in some fashion but I don't understand that notion very well yet.

 

Table 3. Intensity of Involvement in Learning.a

 

Ageb

Gender

Reading

Activity

Worldly

Well-Traveled

Interest

In World

Interest

In Expressive

Active

Study Pursuits

75

Male

HI.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

75

Female

HI.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

HI.

81

Female

 MED.

 MED.

MED.

 MED.

HI.

72

Female

 HI.

HI.

 HI.

HI.

 HI.

75

Male

 MED.

HI.

HI.

MED.

MED.

68

Female

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

72

Female

HI.

 MED.

MED.

 MED.

HI.

67

Male

 HI.

MED.

 HI.

MED.

MED.

72

Female

 HI.

 MED.

 HI.

HI.

HI.

71

Male

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

HI.

73

Male

 HI.

 MED.

MED.

MED.

 HI.

75

Female

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

HI.

 HI.

96

Female

HI.

HI.

HI.

 HI.

 HI.

74

Male

HI.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

72

Female

 MED.

LOW

 MED.

 MED.

 MED.

76

Male

HI.

 MED.

 HI.

 MED.

HI.

75

Female

HI.

 MED.

 MED.

HI.

HI.

93

Male

HI.

MED.

HI.

 MED.

HI.

76

Female

 HI.

HI.

 HI.

HI.

HI.

77

Male

HI.

HI.

 MED.

 MED.

HI.

75

Female

HI.

HI.

 HI.

HI.

 HI.

75

Male

HI.

 MED.

 HI.

 MED.

MED.

71

Male

HI.

 MED.

HI.

LOW

 HI.

70

Female

 HI.

 HI.

MED.

HI.

 HI.

90

Female

HI.

 MED.

MED.

 HI.

 HI.

78

Female

HI.

 MED.

 HI.

MED.

HI.

82

Female

 MED.

LOW

 MED.

 MED.

LOW

72

Female

 MED.

MED.

 HI.

HI.

HI.

69

Male

 HI.

HI.

 HI.

 HI.

 HI.

87

Female

 MED.

HI.

 MED.

 MED.

HI.

aMED = Medium; HI = High.

bAge at the beginning of the research project, Fall, 1975.

 

Observation. Successful older adults usually are active readers and such reading stimulates study activity and an interest in continued or future learning involvement.

 

To follow up on this notion regarding the importance of reading, the subjects were asked to describe what they believed were reasons for this activity as readers. "I was encouraged to read, but mostly by my mother." "Yes, my mother used to read aloud a lot to us, on Sunday especially." "We had a lot of children's books (in the home)." "As far as reading was concerned, we did lots of reading during our youthful years." Incidentally, as might be expected, the mother usually was the person noted as most encouraging of reading in the home. Thus, a recurring theme (28 out of 30) was the belief that parents had stressed the importance of reading or it was noted that lots of books were always available in the home. Parents also were believed by several to be prime factors in the outlook one has on life including the promotion of interest in music, art, or lifelong study. .

 

Observation. An individual's early home environment that stressed reading appears to be associated with later active reading habits. This also may reflect the type of person one becomes and that person's outlook on life.

 

Observation. Activities an individual participates in during the early years shapes the activities one engages in during the later years.

 

Occupational and Educational Background

 

As was noted in Table 1, one half of the subjects were teachers, with another three involved in public school administration. All were well educated, considering the era in which they were born, with everyone obtaining some college and nearly three-fourths college graduates or beyond. Most had been involved professionally in people oriented occupations. Elaborating on the parental influence described above, many of the subjects' parents also were well educated; many had served in professional or teaching roles. Table 4 displays this information.

 

Table 4. Educational and Occupational Information for Subjects and Their Parents.

 

Ageb

Gender

Educ.a of

Self

Educ. of

Mom

Educ. of

Dad

Primary/

Secondary

Occupation

of Self

Primary/

Secondary

Occupation

of Mom

Primary/

Secondary

Occupation

of Dad

75

Male

12b

08

06

Teacher/groc. Wholesaler

Farm wife

Farmer

75

Female

12b

10

04

Teacher/sch. lunch work

Farm wife

Farmer

81

Female

17

12b

18

College professor

Teacher

Doctor

72

Female

19

13b

17

College professor

Teacher

Doctor

75

Male

13

08

12

Postal service

Homemaker

Postal service

68

Female

17

10

16

Advertising

Homemaker

Minister/printer

72

Female

16

12b

16

Secretary

Teacher

Lawyer

67

Male

16

08

08

Life insurance

-

-

72

Female

17

12

16

Teacher

Homemaker

Lawyer

71

Male

19

12b

06

Doctor

Teacher

Farmer

73

Male

16

08b

08

Engineer

Teacher

Plumbing business

75

Female

17

12b

12b

College professor

Teacher

School superintendent

96

Female

19

12

12

Researcher/consultant

Farm wife

Farmer

74

Male

12b

10

10

Teacher

-

-

72

Female

16

07

06

Teacher/drugstore owner

Farm wife

Farmer

76

Male

16

-

12b

Engineer

Homemaker

Teacher/superintendent

75

Female

14

12

08

Teacher

Helped husband

Hardware business

93

Male

17

16

09

Extension agent

Teacher

Livestock business

76

Female

13

08

08

Teacher/secretary

Homemaker

Carpenter

77

Male

19

14

17

College professor

Homemaker

Teacher/lawyer

75

Female

16

08

08b

College professor/librarian

Homemaker

Teacher/blacksmith

75

Male

17

16

17

Principal/teacher

Homemaker

Minister

71

Male

17

08

08

Principal/teacher

Homemaker

Railroad worker

70

Female

13

-

08

Antique business

Homemaker

Printer

90

Female

16

16

16

Author/newspaper reporter

Homemaker

Minister

78

Female

16

12

12

Teacher

-

-

82

Female

12b

-

-

Teacher

Farm wife

Farmer

72

Female

16

-

-

Teacher

-

-

69

Male

19

12

08

Teacher

Homemaker

Managed a hotel

87

Female

16

16

12

Bookkeeper

Homemaker

Managed a grain business

aNumber equals the number of years of formal schooling (16 would be a college graduate, for example).

bReceived “normal” school training on how to be a teacher prior to starting a teaching career.

 

Observation. Involvement in the educational profession can be seen as important to later success and involvement in learning activities.

 

Observation. Education begets learning involvement.

 

Birth Order

 

The order in which a person is born into a family is believed by many psychologists to affect personality, drive, and eagerness to please others. First borns are likely to be hardworking, ambitious, serious, and eager to please their bosses. Most first borns also tend to be the highest scholastic achievers in their family. An "only" child, too, tends to embrace most of the first born characteristics. In this study, the birth order theories received some substantiation. Fourteen of the 30 individuals were first borns and another four were an "only" child (see Table 5). An additional three were born considerably later than their nearest sibling and they felt in many ways they were treated somewhat like an only child or first born.

Related to the above may be some of the personal feelings about self, individuality, or self-discipline. When asked to describe what their primary purpose in life and their personal philosophies evolved around, 24 out of the 30 believed that "self" was the most important cornerstone in one or both of the categories. "I have a lot of stick-to-it, a lot of perseverance." "If you picture yourself as a failure, you will be a failure. So, therefore, picture yourself as a success." "I am pretty self-sufficient." "This was a retirement area. I was not interested in very many of the things that the people who came from allover the U.S. were interested in. Things they talked about - I didn't find anyone with the same interest that I had." "I don't find it difficult to be alone. In fact, I guess maybe I like it too well." Several people also mentioned that they were able to pull from some sort of inner or personal resource during times of stress - a resource that had been developed over several years of being independent in nature. My personal sense is that several are at what Maslow would call self-actualization.

It may not seem too surprising that many subjects stressed the importance of self in some manner as some of the developmental literature supports this notion. What is intriguing to me, however, is that I obtained the sense that this "self-centeredness" may have existed through earlier stages in life, too. Three people in particular mused over why they were so different from their siblings or peers in terms of being independent or self-oriented throughout their life. This is an obvious topic for future study.

 

Observation. Birth order and/or viewing oneself as self-oriented appears associated with success as an older learner.

 

Observation. Successful older adult learners frequently appear accepting of life, calm, at peace with themselves, and quite individualistic in nature.

 

Table 5. Subject’s Birth Order, Primary Life Purpose, Personal Philosophy, Writing Activity, Musical Involvement, and Religious Involvement.

 

Ageb

Gender

No. of Siblings

Birth Order

Life Purpose is Family

Life

Purpose

 is Self

Life

Purpose

 is Work

Personal

Philosophy

Self-

oriented

Personal

Philosophy

Other-

oriented

Involved

in Writing

Activity

 

Involved

in Musical

Activity

 

Involved

in Religious

Activity

 

75

Male

02

01

X

 

 

X

 

 

 

X

75

Female

04

01

 

 

 

 

X

 

X

X

81

Female

04

01

 

X

 

 

X

X

X

 

72

Female

01

01

 

X

 

 

X

X

 

 

75

Male

02

03a

 

X

 

 

X

 

 

X

68

Female

04

01

 

X

 

X

 

 

X

X

72

Female

02

03

 

X

 

X

 

 

 

 

67

Male

02

03a

 

X

 

X

 

 

X

X

72

Female

03

01

 

X

 

 

X

X

 

 

71

Male

02

01

 

 

 

X

 

 

X

X

73

Male

03

01

 

 

X

X

 

X

 

X

75

Female

00

01

 

X

 

 

X

X

X

 

96

Female

04

02

 

X

 

 

X

X

 

X

74

Male

02

01

 

 

 

X

 

X

X

 

72

Female

15

15

 

 

 

X

 

X

 

 

76

Male

04

05

 

 

X

 

X

X

X

X

75

Female

02

01

 

 

X

 

X

 

 

X

93

Male

06

01

 

 

X

X

 

X

 

 

76

Female

00

01

 

X

 

 

X

X

X

X

77

Male

05

01

 

X

 

X

 

X

 

X

75

Female

12

13

 

X

 

 

X

X

X

X

75

Male

06

02

X

 

 

 

X

X

 

X

71

Male

06

01

 

 

 

X

 

 

 

 

70

Female

09

09

 

X

 

X

 

X

 

X

90

Female

04

02

 

X

 

X

 

X

X

X

78

Female

02

01

 

X

 

 

X

X

X

X

82

Female

08

09a

-

 

 

 

X

 

X

X

72

Female

00

01

-

X

 

X

 

X

X

X

69

Male

06

03

 

 

 

 

X

 

 

 

87

Female

00

01

 

X

 

 

X

X

 

 

aConsiderable distance in years existed between their age and the age of the closes sibling.

 

Interest in Writing, Music, and Religion

 

I was amazed by the heavy involvement of many subjects in active writing projects. (See Table 5.) Several had published books and professional articles, were writing poetry, researching for a genealogy write-up, and/or planning for future writing activity. Nineteen out of the 30 reported such writing endeavors. Fourteen reported current involvement with music either in playing it and/or listening to it. Nineteen said they continued to be quite active in religion. Only three people did not report involvement with one of the three.

 

Observation. Early involvement with or interest in writing, music, and/or religion continues into the later years with most successful older learners. Perhaps being a "literate" person in the classic sense of the word is an important factor.

 

Why Are They Successful?

 

Each person was asked to state why they viewed themselves as successful as an older adult learner. Incidentally, almost every person thought of self as successful and did not hesitate in stating why they believed themself to be different from many older persons. Table 6 shows a summary of these comments.

 

Table 6. Personal Observations Regarding Success as a Learner.

 

Ageb

Gender

Summarized Observations of Personal Success

75

Male

Has things to do in retirement; felt many do not, so their life looses meaning

75

Female

Doesn’t worry about the future; being able to relax; curiosity

81

Female

Doesn’t think of self as aged; personality doesn’t age, only the body

72

Female

Parents were very interested in people; got this from parents; active mind

75

Male

Likes people; interested in their well-being

68

Female

Live in the present and continue to do your best; look at the future clearly; no big future goals

72

Female

Religion; “look to this day for life”; friends and teachers were influences

67

Male

No financial worries

72

Female

Takes on activities as they pop up

71

Male

Hard working and independent

73

Male

Willpower; knows what is right and wrong in daily living; conscious acceptance of self; self-control

75

Female

Self-reliant; push from parents; a great self-understanding; husband believes in me

96

Female

Inherited genes; continuing interest and responsibility; curious mind; strong desire for education

74

Male

Curiosity; alert to things going on

72

Female

Always be active; don’t watch TV

76

Male

Doesn’t watch much TV, reads instead

75

Female

Doesn’t watch much TV

93

Male

Necessity is the mother of invention; forward looking person; stick-to-itiveness; encouragement from home

76

Female

People need to be “alive” while they are living; independent type of person

77

Male

Have always read a lot; reflect or meditate; need change; inner resources are important; independent

75

Female

Not too busy, but not bored; you can find really good people everywhere

75

Male

Parents were involved in many activities and encouraged activity

71

Male

Can relax; is curious; raised to look out for others; father was influential

70

Female

Intensive drive and curiosity; aim to get everything possible to squeeze out of life

90

Female

A good brain; conservatism is in my blood

78

Female

Prepared for old age early on; acceptance; finds pride in what she does

82

Female

Likes people; curious; keeps up with varied interests; independent

72

Female

Maturity; understood self well

69

Male

Independent; action-oriented; doesn’t go for extremes

87

Female

Education; parent influences; independent

 

Many of the themes described above show up in this self analysis request: staying active, being curious, self-reliance, and the influence of parents were some of the common responses. Some spoke of what differentiates them in terms of the inner resource notion. It was quite surprising that almost identical language was used here without conscious promoting by the researcher. It was felt that a lifetime of experiences builds an inner strength or resource which seems to act as an energy force in time of stress or concern. This emerging theme requires more study and probing, but it is intriguing.

 

What Have I Learned?

 

Perhaps the most important result has been what I've learned about myself and what I want to change in order to be like many of the successful older adults I've been studying. I am a first born, I do read a lot, am involved in writing, music, and religion, and I have lots of varied interests. However, I do want to build, and perhaps find, an inner resource from which I can pull in times of stress and need. This will take work, self-reflection, and discipline but I think I've learned some things that will help me move toward that state of being.

I think we have learned some things, too, about what we can do as educators to help people become successful older learners. Obviously, we can't facilitate everyone being a first born, but we can help with reading skills, reading interests, and personal curiosity, can promote learning activity, and can facilitate the development of self-directed and self-reflective skills. I also believe that as a parent I've had reinforced the knowledge of the important role I play in guiding my young children toward a lifetime of learning success.

How well these findings to date can be generalized to other older adults is unknown. You can help make some judgments about that as you reflect on implications for yourself or for older learners with whom you have contact. Obviously, the people I studied are the very ones that make most use of the services programs, and resources provided by adult educator. The real challenge the research raises is how are we to reach those without the characteristics of the subjects studied. I conjecture that most of what we do now as adult educators is reach those who are already successful as learners or, at most, help some less successful learners cope with immediate problems. Perhaps we need to move toward providing for future learning success by building today, foundations for learning in terms of learning skill development, creation of excellent learning resources, and enhancing positive attitudes about "self" as learners. We now have a better perspective on success in the later years in terms of learning. Are there not ways that we can use such information to help people in their 30's, 40's, and 50's build toward a higher quality of life in their later years?

 

References

 

Arenberg, D. & Robertson-Tchabo, E.A. (1977). Learning and aging. In J. E. Birren & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging. New York: Van Nostrand and Reinhold.

Birren, J. E. & Woodruff, P. (1973). Human development over the life span through education. In P. Baltes & W. Schaie (Eds.), Life-span developmental psychology. New York: Academic Press

Bolton, E.B. (1978). Cognitive and non-cognitive factors that affect learning in older adults and their implications for instruction. Educational Gerontology, 1, 331-344.

Bogdan, R., & Taylor, S. J. (1975). Introduction to qualitative research methods: Phenomenological approach to the social sciences. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Darkenwald, G. G. (1980). Field research and grounded theory. In H. B. Long & R. Hiemstra, (Eds.), Changing approaches to studying adult education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Glaser, B. G. & Strauss, A.L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Chicago: Aldine.

Hiemstra, R. (1972). Continuing education for the aged: A survey of needs and interests of older persons. Adult Education, 22, 100-109.

Hiemstra, R. (1973). Educational planning for older adults: A survey of “expressive” vs. “instrumental” preferences. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 4, 147-156.

Hiemstra, R. (1975). The older adult and learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 117 371).

Hiemstra, R. (1976). The older adult’s learning projects. Educational Gerontology, 1: 331-341.

Hiemstra, R. & Brown, V. H. (1979). Eldercollege report. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Alumni Association. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 198 303).

Hultsch, D. F. (1977). Changing perspectives on basic research in adult learning and memory. Educational Gerontology, 2, 367-382.

Jones, E. E. (1979). Adult education and the older adult. Educational Gerontology, 4, 349-354.

Jones, H. E. & Conrad, H. S. (1933). The growth and decline of intelligence. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 15, 233-298.

Kasworm, C. E. (1978). Old dogs, children, and watermelon wine. Educational Horizons, 56, 200-205.

Labouvie-Vief, G. (1976). Toward optimizing cognitive competence in later life. Educational Gerontology, 1, 75-92.

Labouvie-Vief, G. (1977). Adult cognitive development: In search of alternative interpretations. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 23, 226-263.

McClusky, H. Y. (1971). The adult as learner. In S. E. Seashire & R. J. McNeill (Eds.), Management of the urban crisis. New York: Macmillan Company.

McClusky, H. (ca. 1974) Education for aging: The scope of the field and perspectives for the future. In S. Grabowski & W. D. Mason (Eds.), Learning for aging. Washington, DC: Adult Education Association of the USA.

McMahon, A. T. (1979). Needs for new emphasis in social and educational policy toward the elderly. Educational Gerontology, 4, 101-113.

Mezirow, J. (1971). Towards a theory of practice. Adult Education, 21, 135-147.

Mezirow, J., Darkenwald, G., & Knox, A. (1975). Last gamble on education: Dynamics of adult basic education. Washington, DC: Adult Education Association of the USA.

Peterson, J. A. (1976). Frontiers in the education of the elderly. Adult Leadership, 24(5), 169-172.

Ralston, P. A. (1978). The relationship of self-perceived educational needs and activities of older adults to selected senior center programs: A community study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Terman, L. M. & Oden, M. H. The gifted group of mid-life. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Thorndike, E. L. (1928). Adult learning. New York: Macmillan Company.

 

Appendix A

 

Four Case Reports

 

(Note: The names used are pseudonyms for purposes of confidentiality, although I have attempted to maintain the "flavor" of each name. The reported ages are those ages of the subjects during my last contact with them.)

 

Mr. George Washington Brown

 

A man of medium height and slight build, Mr. Brown is 99 years of age. He lives in the extended care wing of a large nursing home in a medium sized mid-western town. Born of Midwest farm pioneers in April of 1882, Mr. Brown was the first of seven children. His mother spent some time as a country school teacher and his father stayed involved with the livestock business most of his life. Until he was 19, Mr. Brown was never more than 20 miles from home.

A love of farming sent him to a land-grant university for a degree in agriculture. While an undergraduate, Mr. Brown helped conduct corn research and carries on such interests today. The Cooperative Extension Service came into being in one state about the time Mr. Brown was graduating and he became one of the first Extension agents there. Among one of the most exciting chapters in Mr. Brown's life was involvement with the famous "corn train" adult education experiments sponsored by Extension, where trains traveled around the state with cars converted to educational labs and classrooms so farmers could receive instruction at each stop. Married in 1908, he and his wife had five children. All are still living, as are some 18 grandchildren and 20 great-grandchildren.

When I first interviewed Mr. Brown in 1975, he got around only with the use of a walker (a stroke a few years earlier had left some permanent mobility limitations). The lack of mobility did not affect a very active mind, however. A laboratory effect was in place in his nursing home room, with corn samples in abundance, a variety of farm records and other charts neatly arranged in piles, and an obviously often used electric typewriter the center of attention. He reported that he still obtained corn samples from colleagues in several states or in Mexico. He was actively pursuing work on two books and wondering what to do with all the photographs of farm buildings he had collected on a journey throughout the United States after his retirement.

When I asked him about his apparent involvement and success with lifelong learning, he had several observations. He noted that he had received lots of encouragement from home to do reading and to go on to college (his mother had graduated from college and his father had completed some high school). Mr. Brown also believed he had more "stick-to-itiveness" than the average person and also perceived of himself as a forward looking person. He also noted that necessity was the mother of invention and that he had on many occasions used that motto to keep himself going on some tough research problem or learning activity.

 

Mrs. Louse Mae Wilson

 

Mrs. Wilson is a woman of medium height and quite slender. She is 84 years of age. She appeared very alert on my first contact with her in 1975. Her home was very tidy, several books were in evidence, and lots of beautiful art work hung on the walls. Mrs. Wilson also was very interested in my research and had prepared several pages of notes, apparently based on the few preliminary comments about the research that I had mentioned on the phone. She also asked me lots of questions. Thus, our first visit consumed some three hours. My two subsequent visits with her were not much shorter and mail or phone conversations always have been most interesting.

Born of pioneer stock in a small Midwestern town, she was the oldest of three children. Her mother had 11 years of high school plus some normal school training; she taught school in a rural community for awhile and during her many years as a homemaker was involved in a variety of part-time money making projects. Mrs. Wilson's father also had 11 years of high school and worked as a carpenter and in a flour mill. Mrs. Wilson and her husband had four children, all of whom were well educated.

Mrs. Wilson graduated from a teachers college and taught high school for 23 years. Even during her 20 years primarily as a homemaker, she worked part-time with a school lunch program. She was involved in a variety of organizations and activities when I first met her in 1975. She had been to Europe four times between 1970 and 1975. Mrs. Wilson also was then and has since been involved in various writing activities. She has published two books of free verse. Here is a sample:

Creatively Productive

 

To be creatively productive

From year to year

Is an achievement to be desired?

One has to work at it.

Perhaps the first step

Is to look for hidden talents

And to realize that tasks of any kind

Can be creative if done with a loving heart.

Patience, further persistence

Will bring its own reward

If we refuse to sit with folded hands.

 

That philosophy so epitomizes Mrs. Wilson's outlook on life. In a recent communication, she said about the activity of writing: "In my opinion, writing could well be used more widely as an interesting hobby for those in the 'last quarter.' Starting with family stories youth love to hear, it doesn't require unusual talent--just an interest." She also noted, "At 84 I'm 'slowed down' by failing health but would still affirm what I said in 1975, I still believe one should maintain contacts in many fields in so far as opportunity presents.

When I asked her about some ideas regarding her successful learning activities, she noted that you need to keep active and take advantage of opportunities as they arise. "You have to prepare for old age early on." She also noted that she finds pride in all that she does.

 

Mr. Edward Bode

 

Mr. Bode, age 82, was born in 1900 in a western state, the second of seven children. All seven children (all boys) obtained either masters or doctoral degrees. His father was a minister, had a masters degree (divinity school), and was a good influence on his children although he pushed them to their limits. His mother was a college graduate, too, and he remembers her as having the most overall influence on the children through reading to them and quietly encouraging them toward success.

The holder of a master’s degree, Mr. Bode taught school for four years. He then served as a public school administrator for some twenty years and as a personnel director for twenty years. A Red Cross volunteer for nearly 50 years, Mr. Bode also has done volunteer work for the Veteran's Administration, vocational rehabilitation, and the United Fund. He also served as a program host on Educational Television for a period. He has an enthusiastic feeling for others and this shows in all that he does: "I love people."

Although he has had two massive heart attacks in his life, he has amazing energy and vitality. He does a variety of exercises and lots walking daily. He proudly communicated to me a recent accomplishment, the publishing of his biography. He also does some free verse:

 

The world doesn't know you, so

The world doesn't care.

I am the one who knows you.

Your burdens I gladly share.

Lay them on me!

 

When I asked him to suggest some of the reasons for his success in life and as an active person, he suggested that because his parents were involved in many activities, they encouraged activity in their children. He also noted recently, "Because of my home life as a youth and the training and examples set for me, I probably have a greater feeling for others than most of my peers.

 

Dr. Felicia Lohrman

 

At 102 years of age, Dr. Lohrman is the oldest resident of a nursing home in a large Midwestern city. Born in a state in the northeastern part of the country, her family was at one time involved in the Underground Railroad movement. She was the second of five children. Her parents were both high school graduates and also attended some schooling beyond that. Her parents owned and operated a farm. She never married.

Dr. Lohrman obtained a Ph.D. in educational research and served primarily as a researcher and educational consultant much of her working life. She also was a college professor, worked with the social placement of children and in foster home work. In 1975, although at that time in a nursing home and with very little mobility, she spent an unusually large amount of time each day reading. Declining health and energy since then has reduced such activity but she still does some reading, has others read to her, and participates in discussion activities almost every week. Dr. Lohrman has written several professional articles in her lifetime and did considerable traveling before her mobility became limited.

When we talked about her involvement and success as a learner, she suggested that inherited genes, continuing interest and responsibility, a curious mind, and a strong desire for education were important factors. In a recent communication, she noted: "I think of education as a life process unless a person is senile." She added, "I have come to respect the learning of every intelligent person and am sorry for those evidently lacking an active mind." She concluded with, "I firmly believe that mental and physical strength should be generally conserved. Pathetic is my word for the person of any age who has lost contact with reality."

 

 

May 3, 2005

 

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