Early Ideas on the Training of Leaders for Adult Education

EARLY IDEAS ON THE TRAINING OF LEADERS FOR ADULT EDUCATION

Ralph G. Brockett

The period between the two World Wars was a particularly crucial time in the development of the adult education movement in the United States. According to Webster Cotton (1964), the early years of the adult education movement, which include the period between the Wars, was characterized by two traditions. The first of these was what Cotton referred to as the "social reformist" tradition. This tradition, which emerged during the 19205, included such individuals as Eduard Lindeman, Joseph Hart, Charles Beard, and Alexander Meiklejohn. It stressed that the major emphasis of adult education should be on addressing social, political, and economic issues of the times. An alternative perspective, which Cotton has called the "professional" tradition, began to emerge during the early and middle 19305. This tradition, which Cotton has argued was at least partially a reaction against the perceived "utopianism" of the social reform tradition, included, according to Cotton, such individuals as Lyman Bryson, Morse Cartwright, Alvin Johnson, E. L. Thorndike, and Everett Dean Martin. The professional tradition was important to the development of the movement because it "indicated that the adult education movement was becoming sophisticated and mature--that it was learning from its contact with social reality" (Cotton, 1964, p. 84).

Few issues have divided the contemporary adult education field more than whether the field should strive toward greater professional status and, if so, what form that professionalization should take. Clearly, this debate can be traced back to the earliest years of the adult education movement in this country. The purpose of this paper is two-fold. First, it will briefly identify four developments from the late 1920s that can be argued to have helped shape the professional tradition of adult education. Second, the paper will focus specifically on one of these developments--university training for leaders in adult education.

INFLUENCES ON THE PROFESSIONAL TRADITION

Although Cotton suggested that the professional tradition arose during the 1930s, it would seem that the seeds of this tradition were being sown in the previous decade. What were these seeds? It is suggested here that at least four closely-interrelated developments influenced the emergence of the professional tradition. These developments were the formation of professional associations, the establishment of a professional literature base, early efforts to initiate research on adult education, and the training of leaders to work in adult education. In order to set the context for the paper, the first three of these influences will be briefly identified. The remainder of the paper will then concentrate on a closer examination of the emergence of training for adult education leaders.

Formation of Professional Associations

During the middle of the 1920s, two professional associations of adult education came into being. First, the Department of Immigrant Education of the National Education Association changed its name to the Department of Adult Education. In 1927 the NEA Department expanded its membership base and initiated several projects intended to move the association "away from the role of a strictly professional society of public school adult educators toward a more general coordinative role" (Knowles, 1977, p. 210). The second association to emerge during this time was the American Association for Adult Education (AAAE). Founded in 1926, as the result of a series of meetings sponsored by the Carnegie Corporation, the intent of the AAAE, as stated in its constitution, was "to promote the development and improvement of adult education in the United States and to cooperate with similar associations in other countries" (Knowles, 1977, p. 194).

While Knowles (1977) devoted about eight pages to the history of the NEA Department, the present author is not aware of a more extensive treatment of this history. On the other hand, the history of the AAAE seems more accessible. Major developments of the AAAE during the time period under consideration were documented by AAAE executive director Morse Cartwright (1935) in his series of Annual Reports, which appeared in each volume of the Journal of Adult Education, and in his account of the first decade of the adult education movement. Several interpretations of the development of the AAAE, and the role of the Carnegie Corporation in this development, have been offered (e.g., Knowles, 1977; Rose, 1979; Stubblefield, 1988).

Establishment of a Professional Literature Base

A second development that seems to have contributed to the development of a professional tradition was the establishment of the professional literature base. During the middle 1920s several books were published that attempted to define adult education and/or identify its role in society. Among the most familiar of these works to the contemporary field are Eduard Lindeman's The Meaning of Adult Education (1926), Everett Dean Martin's The Meaning of a Liberal Education (1926), Dorothy Canfield Fisher's Why Stop Learning? (1927), and Joseph Hart's Adult Education (1927). The AAAE appears to have played a key role in the establishment of the professional literature. In 1929 the Association first published its Journal of Adult Education (JAE). For the next 13 years the JAE served as an important voice for the adult education movement, as interpreted through the eyes of the AAAE. Day (1981), in an extensive content analysis of the JAE during this time period, offers several insights into the flavor and importance of the publication.

In addition to publication of the JAE, the AAAE sponsored the publication of a large number of books during the 1930s. Among these were two "handbooks" of adult education (Rowden, 1934; 1936), a compilation of articles extracted from the first several years of the JAE, published under the title Adult Education in Action (Ely, 1936), and a 27-volume series of field-based investigations entitled "Studies in the Social Significance of Adult Education."

Initiation of Research in Adult Education

A third development during this time was an effort to better understand the adult learner through systematic research. Certainly a most influential study from this period was a study of adult intelligence that refuted earlier findings about the inevitable decline of intelligence in adulthood (Thorndike et a1., 1928). However, other researchers also began to direct their attention to adult learning during this time. One such example was an investigation of adult's reading interests (Waples, 1930).

During the 1930s there seem to have been various "calls" for adult educators to engage in research. One such call was from W. W. Charters (1930), who suggested that the fundamental problem could be found in the following question: "What are the differences between the techniques of teaching adults and the techniques of teaching children?" (p. 372). One of three major areas needing investigation, according to Charters, was the selection and training of adult education leaders.

Of the three influences on the professional tradition that have been identified, research is probably the one that has been least clearly understood. While the picture painted by two early reviews was not very positive (Bittner, 1950; Brunner et a1., 1959), it would seem important to further explore the ways in which research was defined by those within the field during the period under consideration.

THE EMERGENCE OF UNIVERSITY TRAINING FOR LEADERS

IN ADULT EDUCATION

The three influences presented above have been introduced in order to illustrate the context in which the professional tradition of adult education was born. The discussion will now shift to a closer look at the fourth development. For purposes of this discussion, "training of leaders" will focus on university-based courses in adult education. A description of several major developments will be followed by an examination of central themes and the identification of several possible directions for further exploration.

The JAE played a role in providing information about training activities. A regular feature of the JAE was a section entitled "Clearing House," which announced upcoming adult education activities and provided synopses of recent programs. Often included in this section was information about teacher-training programs and adult education courses. "Clearing House" was an important source for the information contained in the following paragraphs.

It is important to recognize from the outset that university preparation, and graduate education in particular, was only one avenue toward which leadership training efforts were focused. During this period (roughly 19291941), training for adult education leaders was offered through such agencies as parent associations, agricultural extension, and religious organizations. In addition, the economic crisis of the early 1930s resulted in the establishment. of the Federal Emergency Education Program. This program provided training for qualified persons who might be employed as teachers of adults and preschool children. Participants included public school teachers who had lost their jobs, recent graduates of teacher-training programs unable to find work, and individuals without teaching experience but with "valuable experience in useful fields--artist, musicians, lawyers, accountants, mechanics, craftsmen, nurses, homemakers" (Wiese & Maxwell, 1939, p. 172). Though this program was operated by universities throughout the country, its focus remained different from that of the university courses that eventually led to the emergence of graduate study.

Early Efforts

According to Houle (1964), the first university course with the words "adult education" in the title appeared in 1922 at Teachers College, Columbia University. However, it was not until several years later that a more conscious effort to offer "teacher training" and "courses in adult education" was made. For instance, Cartwright (1935) noted that the problem of "training in methods of adults" (p. 134) was first recognized in summer sessions at Teachers College during 1927 and 1928.

Two of the earliest reported efforts to provide university training for adult education leaders were the summer session programs of Teachers College, Columbia University and the University of California, Berkeley. At Teachers College, the 1929 summer session was co-sponsored with the AAAE and the New York State Education Department and consisted of 30 lectures by such individuals as Morse Cartwright (AAAE), Frederick Keppel (Carnegie Corporation), J. S. Nofsinger (National Home Study Council), Hilda W. Smith (Affiliated Summers Schools for Women Workers in Industry), and Arthur Bestor (Chautauqua Institution). Lectures were held daily, Monday through Friday, for a six-week period. In addition, those persons enrolled for two credits participated in discussion sessions following the lectures. An average of 63 persons attended each of the lectures, while an average of nearly 35 people participated in the discussion sessions. The summer session centered around five major themes: general adult education considerations, experiments in adult education, major interests in a public school program, university extensions and home study, and special fields in adult education ("Adult Education Summer Course," 1929).

The California summer session began as an experiment by the University of California, the State Department of Education, and the California Association for Adult Education. Designed "primarily to meet the needs of leaders and teachers in the field of adult education," the school was directed by Harry A. Overstreet ("California School," 1929, p. 322). The program was divided into three parts. One part consisted of courses in the "philosophy, purpose and history of adult education." A second component emphasized subject matter through "special demonstration courses in those subjects in which adults are primarily interested." A third part was made up of courses in "special phases of adult education" such as parent education, immigrant education, and vocational education (p. 323).

Like the Teachers College session, the California school ran for a six-week period and credit was offered. However, a feature unique to the California program was its residential focus. Participants resided in Hansford Hall, a dormitory on the university campus, throughout the sixweek session. Bonaro Wilkinson, a participant in the 1929 summer session, who would eventually marry Harry Overstreet, provided a rich description of the experiment. In response to the question of why the instructors of the summer session were able to depart from the "standardized system," Wilkinson (1930) made the following observation:

The answer would seem to lie in the fact that Hansford Hall was backing them up. Students did not separate when the bell rang. . . . They gathered at the dormitory as a unit. There, around the table or in front of the fireplace, they could go on with the discussion which an untimely bell had interrupted. Those who, lacking either in opportunity or courage, had voiced no views publicly, could now make their contribution in the friendly intimacy of a small group. . . . And, perhaps most significant of all, the professors themselves could be drawn into these discussions. They ceased to be strange creatures to be regarded from a respectful distance; they became friends with whom one could sit down and talk and with whom one could frankly disagree. . . . It was a delightful experience which continued from morning until night, the classroom serving merely as a sort of clearing house in which scattered ideas attained some semblance of organization. In short, the classes and the dormitory life were mutually complementary. (p. 70)

For the next three years, the Teachers College and California programs seemed to follow plans similar to those of the 1929 session. In 1932 Lyman Bryson assumed the directorship of the California school ("California Summer School," 1932). At least two other programs were reported during this period. In 1931 the University of Rochester conducted "the first of a series of courses in adult education" ("Adult Education Course," 1931, p. 242). This course was held during the academic year, rather than in the summer. In 1932 Ohio State University offered three summer courses during its summer quarter. Each of these courses-Theory and Problems of Adult Education, Leadership Training, and Minor Problems-were taught by Jessie Allen Charters ("Ohio Courses," 1932).

The First Graduate Programs

During this time, Teachers College and Ohio State established their graduate programs through the establishment of departments of adult education in 1930 and 1931, respectively. A chronology of these developments has been offered by Houle (1964). At Teachers College these efforts were aided by $6,000.00 from the Carnegie Corporation for the "establishment and support of fellowships in adult education" for the 1933-34 academic year ("Adult Education, Teachers College," 1933, p. 318). The experiment was continued during 1934-35, and was aided by the addition of Lyman Bryson to the faculty, initially as a visiting professor ("Columbia Leader," 1934). In 1935 the first doctoral degrees in adult education were awarded to Wilbur C. Hallenbeck and William Stacy at Teachers College (Houle, 1964) and Olive Woodruff at Ohio State (Hendrickson, 1986).

In the following years, the role of universities in graduate preparation continued to expand. Graduate programs were established at the University of Chicago (Houle, 1964) and New York University ("New York University," 1935) in 1935. And at Yale University, a General Studies program was established under the leadership of Edward S. Robinson for individuals desiring graduate training but not seeking doctoral candidacy ("Yale General Studies," 1935). By 1938, 24 institutions were offering a total of 46 courses ("Summer Courses," 1938). As for the Teachers College and California programs, in 1938 the former announced five courses while the latter offered one course.

Universities clearly played a key role in the emergence of leadership training in adult education. However, two points should be kept in mind. First, such training was not always associated with graduate degree programs in adult education. Although credit was frequently awarded for these courses, the distinction needs to be made between programs where learners were seeking graduate degrees and those programs where such was not the intent. Second, the primary sources that have been used in this investigation come from selected segments of the professional literature of the time. Training efforts reported in this literature were typically aimed at a broad spectrum of the field. Thus, local, short-term training activities are not likely to have made the pages of this literature.

CENTRAL THEMES IN THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT

OF LEADERSHIP TRAINING EFFORTS

The above descriptions of the leadership training efforts are, by necessity, very brief, and provide a thumbnail sketch of how universities initially engaged in leadership training for educators of adults. A closer look, however, reveals that there were certain recurring themes during this period that may be central to gaining greater insight into the early development of university training for adult education leaders. The following section will focus on two interrelated themes: Who should provide leadership, and what should be the nature of leadership training?

Who Should Provide Leadership in Adult Education?

As adult education came to be considered a "movement" within some circles, the question of who would or should provide the leadership for such a movement began to emerge. Essentially, the question was one of whether such leadership should be provided by "lay" leaders, who had been attracted I to the education of adults from outside of education, or by persons with I professional training as educators. This issue is central to the present discussion because the two extremes represent very different conceptions about the ideal focus of leadership-training efforts and, consequently, the place of graduate study in adult education. The importance of the lay emphasis was expressed by Dorothy Canfield Fisher (1930) in the following statement regarding her early involvement with adult education:

Professional educators were not at all the ones who had first creatively thought of the marvelous possibilities of continuing the process of education during the years of maturity; nor, after the conception had been formulated, were professional educators the leaders in the field of self-education. No, the eager consecrated pioneers of the movement were rather people who had no professional connection with education. Those on whom institutions of learning had bestowed the orthodox trademarks not only showed no anxiety to help along the movement, but were for years - many of them still are - hostile and offish. (p. 10)

Looking at the issue from a different perspective, Thomas Fansler (1931) offered a case on behalf of the expert or professional:

The amateur can, perhaps, guide you to the field, point out the obvious features, but he can not lead you through it. Philosopher and friend he can be, but not a guide. . . . But here in the field is your guide. He is already there. . . . You will learn more, go faster, and hence be ready to go on to another, perhaps larger, adjacent field if you go with him. (p. 58)

Fansler built on this view by arguing that "the specialty of an educational institution should be education and not entertainment" (p. 60).

In another article, Fansler (1934) described the first year of the graduate experiment in adult education at Teachers College. Here, Fansler stated that "what the college was seeking was guidance in determining its relation to the problem of training professional [emphasis added] leaders in adult education." He advocated for the further development of such programs by concluding "that if schools of education have definite responsibility for the training of leaders of adult educational activities and for research into problems in adult education, many such schools should interest themselves in the task" (p. 416). The view that lay leaders were inferior was suggested by Sidonie M. Greenberg, director of the Child Study Association of America, during a panel discussion at the 1932 meeting of the AAAE:

I find almost too much tolerance . . . of the so-called lay leader in adult education and of inferior work generally in various fields . . . . I find that the people who judge my movement know absolutely nothing about parent education and are almost too tolerant of the bad in parent education. ("Recent Trends," 1933, p. 266)

Most writers from the period seemed to advocate a position somewhere between these two extremes, recognizing the value of both lay and professional leaders. For instance, Jessie Allen Charters (1930) made the distinction between "teacher," which implies an expert in the subject matter being taught, and "leader," which "implies abilities, rather than information; trademarks not only showed no anxiety to help along the movement, but were for years - many of them still are - hostile and offish. (p. 10) Looking at the issue from a different perspective, Thomas Fansler (1931) offered a case on behalf of the expert or professional:

Fansler built on this view by arguing that "the specialty of an educational institution should be education and not entertainment" (p. 60).

I find almost too much tolerance. . . of the so-called lay leader in adult education and of inferior work generally in various fields. . . . I find that the people who judge my movement know absolutely nothing about parent education and are almost too tolerant of the bad in parent education. ("Recent Trends," 1933, p. 266)

Most writers from the period seemed to advocate a position somewhere between these two extremes, recognizing the value of both lay and professional leaders. For instance, Jessie Allen Charters (1930) made the distinction between "teacher," which implies an expert in the subject matter being taught, and "leader," which "implies abilities, rather than information; understanding rather than expertness" (p. 17). According to Charters, professional training could be viewed as somewhat analogous to traditional teacher training of the day. As an ideal for teachers of adult study groups, Charters considered this approach to be "reactionary" because it would place emphasis on content expertise and authority over the kind of "understanding" needed to effectively lead adult groups. At the same time Charters argued fervently on behalf of the need for leadership training:

It is not possible to overestimate the importance of training for leaders in the field of adult education. We have not appreciated the fact that the whole movement may disintegrate for lack of adequate leadership unless an aggressive, positive, and very extensive program of training is speedily undertaken. (p. 20)

She went on to describe a leadership-training plan for parent education in Ohio comprised of credit and noncredit courses. In this plan, "every effort must be made to avoid 'institutionalizing' adult study" (p. 21). This suggests that Charters was advocating a lay approach. However, the plan she proposed included courses related to teaching method. This, combined with the establishment of the adult education graduate program at Ohio State University a year later, seems to provide support for the other perspective.

Throughout the next decade, there seems to have been support for the value of both lay and professional leaders in adult education. Two quotes serve to illustrate this "middle" position:

Even though we can establish this distinction between teaching and leading, we must allow that many workers in the field play both roles, . not at once, but in relation to different students, or at different times, in different activities. (Bryson, 1936, p. 68)

and

Because the division between lay and academic thought has existed for centuries, there is no reason for believing that it must always be. We Americans are a practical people with a talent for combining that which was separate when combination promises new values. (Johnson, 1941, p. 157)

The point that can be gleaned from these positions is that the development of "professional" leaders through graduate training in adult education was, and continues to be, only one avenue of entry into the field. An understanding of the current landscape of adult education in the U.S., including questions related to its "professional" status, or lack thereof, can probably be traced to this question and some of the early responses to the question.

What Should Be the Nature of Leadership Training?

A second question centers around the type of training to be emphasized. There are two dimensions to this question. First, there is the issue of whether such training should emphasize an experiential or academic focus. Second, there is an issue relative to whether leadership training should emphasize subject matter or teaching methods. As with the issue of who should provide leadership, there are authors who argue for one position over the other; however, most authors take a middle position, recognizing the need for both academic and experiential background, as well as subject matter and methods expertise.

With regard to the general emphasis of leadership training, one of the earliest arguments for an experiential focus was offered by MacKaye (1931), who used a military metaphor to support his position. Suggesting that "adult education is essentially an act of war" and that "the trench is the only school" where one can be trained to teach adults (p. 292), MacKaye argued for a "tactical training" approach to apprenticeship in the development of adult education leaders. MacKaye summarized his position as follows:

Of course, college training is necessary for the candidate for the adult education classroom. There can not be too much of it, but it should deal with the subject matter of living and not with the techniques of teaching. No youthful teacher is to be employed for adult groups. Those are places for the mature teacher, with life experiences of his own. (p. 294)

During the 1935 annual meeting of the AAAE, William M. Proctor voiced further support for this view by suggesting that adult education leaders "must be trained on the job" (Hill, 1935, p. 327). However, Proctor's view was not so extreme as that of MacKaye, for he went on to suggest that "those who are to train the leaders on the job may themselves be trained by universities" (p. 327).

An alternative viewpoint is represented by Kohn (1937) who, while not directly addressing leadership training, nonetheless offered implications relative to the nature of such efforts:

. . . a close alliance between education and scholarship is needed--not to make scholars of all students but to enable every student to gain some understanding of the achievements of scholarship, to have some share in its labors, to learn to love wisdom and clear thinking and right living genuinely and for their own sakes. (p. 31)

This need for scholarship was further emphasized by Russell (1938), who asked the question, "How shall one select [material to be taught] if one does not know more than one needs to use?" (p. 385). At the same time, Russell, stated that sympathetic imagination--the ability to put oneself in the place of one's students-is an essential quality for teachers of adults. Yet, one cannot be trained in this imagination "except through the joy that comes to the artist in the increasing approximation to his ideal" (p. 386). In other words, only through experience can one develop this quality.

A second dimension pertaining to the nature of leadership training has been implied throughout the previous pages. This centers around the desired content of leadership training, perhaps more specifically, the kinds 01 skills needed by successful adult education leaders. At the most basic level, this issue is one of the relative emphasis that should be placed on subject matter versus teaching methods. Various writers, such as Beck (1935) argued that too much emphasis was being placed on tools and techniques and that the fewer tools one utilized, the higher the quality of education.

For the most part, a middle position seems to have been advocated throughout the literature. Here, the view was taken that both subject matter and method are important. As an example, Brunner (1936) noted that adult. education is not a "single subject" existing in "an intellectual vacuum" and thus argued that institutions involved in training adult education leaders "should not fall into the error of teaching them techniques alone [emphasis added]" (pp. 457-458). In 1938 the text from a series of "colloquy" were printed in the JAE. Two of these colloquies, "Who are our leaders and how are they trained?" and "Are we overemphasizing method?" addressed the subject matter/method issue in some detail.

As a final point related to this dimension, it should be noted that a wide range of qualities, which fall neither under subject-matter expertise nor teaching methodology, were identified from the literature as being desirable for teachers of adults. Among these were an ability to foster the "wish-to-learn" (Fisher, 1934), "rational skepticism" (Bryson, 1936), and "honest self-criticism" (Russell, 1938). Further work is needed in order to better understand questions related to views about the content of leadership training and the kinds of qualities identified as being desirable .among such leaders.

TOWARD FURTHER EXPLANATION

This project started as part of an effort by the author to begin defining a personal agenda for the examination of early influences on adult education as a field of study. However, in the process of identifying likely influences, it was decided to focus on an exploratory look at one of these influences-the training of adult education leaders. While the ideas put forth in this paper offer insights that may be useful in understanding university involvement in training leaders for adult education, such insights must be viewed as tentative until a more detailed examination can be undertaken. The current investigation, for instance, is based largely on the use of primary sources emanating from the publications of one professional association. These writings certainly reflect one perspective on the adult education movement, but cannot be assumed to represent the entire range of thought encompassing the adult education field during the period under investigation.

There are several directions that further exploration of this topic could take. These include closer looks at key individuals, institutions, and programs in adult education. Among those whose lives might shed greater "insight into understanding of leadership training are individuals such as Lyman Bryson, Morse Cartwright, Jessie Allen Charters, and Harry and Bonaro Overstreets. The Overstreets wrote a book, Leaders for Adult Education, which offered an important interpretation of leadership training during this period worthy of further examination (Overstreet & Overstreet, 1941). In addition, it might be productive to look at the contributions of Edward S. Robinson. Robinson was the director of general studies at Yale University until his death in 1937 at age 43. Though only involved with the adult education movement for a short time, it appears that Robinson was beginning to play an important role in the professional tradition of adult education at the time of his death.

With regard to institutions, future investigation could look at some of the earliest providers of programs, such as Teachers College, the University of California, the University of Chicago, Ohio State University, and New York University. Also, the major professional associations of the period, the AAAE and the NEA Department of Adult Education, could be examined further. As has been stated, this paper has been written almost entirely from the perspective of the AAAE. Yet, it is known that the agenda of this association was quite different from that of the NEA Department (e.g., Knowles, 1977). Therefore, a more complete picture of leadership training will only be possible once an examination is made from the perspective of the NEA Department.

Finally, this paper has stressed the role of universities in providing leadership training primarily through "courses in adult education," as was the term frequently used at the time. Yet, there was much more to the training of leaders than credit courses in adult education. Such activities as the Federal Emergency Education Program, agricultural extension, state education departments, libraries, parent education organizations, among other programs, were vital to a broad picture of leadership training in adult education. These stories need to be told, and their relationship to "courses in adult education" needs to be assessed.

CONCLUDING SPECULATION

This paper has pointed to the origins of struggles that remain a very real part of the contemporary adult education field. Authors such as Cotton (1964) and the contributors to the "black book" (Jensen, Liveright, & Hallenbeck, 1964) have provided convincing arguments in support of the professional tradition of adult education. Indeed, this paper offers evidence in support of the case for the professional tradition. At the same time, there remains a question that needs to be asked by those who look further at this area: In what ways did the professional tradition "cost" the field of adult education? A glance at the early volumes of the JAE, for instance, reveals contributions of leaders not directly aligned with the adult education "movement" such as Jane Addams, Theodore Roosevelt, and James Harvey Robinson. In addition, individuals known widely for contributions outside of adult education circles, such as Dorothy Canfield Fisher and John W. Studebaker, played important roles in the development of the movement. However, as the shift toward the professional tradition evolved during the 1930s, the contributions of such individuals seems to have tapered off. In order to more fully assess what might have been gained through the professional tradition of adult education, it is also necessary to understand what may have been lost in the move away from the social reformist tradition. Such an examination could help those of us engaged in the field today work toward meeting the challenge identified a quarter of a century ago by Cotton (1964): To draw the best from both the social reformist and professional traditions.

REFERENCES

Adult education course, Rochester. (1931). Journal of Adult Education, 3(2), 242.

Adult education summer course, Teachers College. (1929). Journal of Adult Education, 1(4), 458-466.

Adult education, Teachers College, Columbia. (1933). Journal of Adult Education, :2(3), 317-318.

Beck, G. F. (1935). Tools and the teacher. Journal of Adult Education, 7(4), 393-395.

Bittner, W. S. (1950). Adult education. In W. S. Monroe (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Research (rev. ed.). New York: Macmillan.

Brunner, E. de S. (1936). Placement possibilities. Journal of Adult Education, 8(4), 455-459.

Brunner, E. de S., Wilder, D. S., Kirchner, C., & Newberry, J. S., Jr. (1959). An overview of adult education research. Washington, DC: Adult Education Association of the U.S.A.

Bryson, L. (1936). Adult education. New York: American Book Co. California school of adult education. (1929). Journal of Adult Education, 1(3), 322-323.

California summer school for adults. (1932). Journal of Adult Education, 1(2), 203-204.

Cartwright, M. A. (1935). Ten years of adult education. New York: Macmillan.

Charters, J. A. (1930). The training of leaders for adult study groups. Journal of Adult Education, 2(1), 16-21.

Charters, W. W. (1930). Next steps. Journal of Adult Education, 2(4), 370-375.

Columbia leader-training experiment. (1934). Journal of Adult Education, 6(4, Pt. I), 471.

Cotton, W. E. (1964). The challenge confronting American adult education. Adult Education, 14(2)80-88.

Day, M. J. (1981). Adult education as a new educational frontier: Review of the Journal of Adult Education, 1929-1941 (Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1981).

Ely, M. L. (Ed.). (1936). Adult education in action. New York: American Association for Adult Education.

Fansler, T. L. (1931). In defense of the expert. Journal of Adult Education, 3(1), 57-61.

Fansler, T. L. (1934). Leaders in training. Journal of Adult Education, 6(4, Pt. I), 412-417.

Fisher, D. C. (1927). Why stop learning? New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.

Fisher, D. C. (1930). Learn or perish. New York: Horace Liveright.

Fisher, D. C. (1934). The will-to-understand. Journal of Adult Education, 6(3), 253-258.

Hart, J. K. (1927). Adult education. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell.

Hendrickson, A. (1986). Reflections on the early years of graduate study in adult education at The Ohio State University. Proceedings of the Golden Anniversary Conference on Graduate Study in Adult Education, Columbus, OH: Ohio State University, 13-18.

Hill, F. W. (1935). The tenth annual meeting. Journal of Adult Education, 7(3), 307-334.

Houle, C. O. (1964). The emergence of graduate study in adult education. In G. Jensen, A. A. Liveright, & W. Hallenbeck (Eds.), Adult education: Outlines of an emerging field of university study (pp. 69-83). Washington, DC: Adult Education Association of the U.S.A.

Jensen, G., Liveright, A. A., & Hallenbeck, W. (Eds.). (1964). Adult education: Outlines of an emerging field of university study. Washington, DC: Adult Education Association of the U.S.A.

Johnson, A. (1941). Journal of Adult Education, 13(2), 157.

Knowles, M. S. (1977). The adult education movement in the United States (rev. ed.). Malabar, FL: Robert E. Krieger.

Kohn, H. (1937). Adult education needs scholarship. Journal of Adult Education, 2(1), 30-34.

Lindeman, E. C. (1926). The meaning of adult education. New York: New Republic.

MacKaye, D. L. (1931). Tactical training for teaching adults. Journal of Adult Education, 3(3), 290-294.

Martin, E. D. (1926). The meaning of a liberal education. New York: W. W. Norton & Co.

New York University. (1935). Journal of Adult Education, 7(2), 216.

Ohio courses in adult education. (1932). Journal of Adult Education, 1(5), 335.

Overstreet, H. A., & Overstreet, B. W. (1941). Leaders for adult education. New York: American Association for Adult Education.

Recent trends in the American movement for adult education: A panel discussion. (1933). Journal of Adult Education, 5(3), 265-270.

Rose, A. D. (1979). Towards the organization of knowledge: Professional adult education in the 1920s (Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1979). Dissertation Abstracts International, 39, 7115A-7116A.

Rowden, D. (Ed.). (1934). Handbook of adult education in the United States. New York: American Association for Adult Education.

Rowden, D. (Ed.). (1936). Handbook of adult education in the United States. New York: American Association for Adult Education.

Russell, J. E. (1938). Can the art of teaching be taught? Journal of Adult Education, 10(4), 383-386.

Stubblefield, H. W. (1988). Towards a history of adult education in America. London and New York: Croom Helm.

Summer courses in adult education. (1938). Journal of Adult Education, 10(2),210-212.

Thorndike, E. L., Bergman, E. 0., Tilton, J. W., & Woodyard, E. (1928). Adult learning. New York: Macmillan.

Waples, D. (1930). What do adults want to read? Journal of Adult Education, 2(4), 376-387.

Wiese, M. J., & Maxwell, G. L. (1939). As we are taught, so do we teach. Journal of Adult Education, 11(2), 172-176.

Wilkinson, B. (1930). Teaching teachers in a new way. Journal of Adult Education, 2(1), 67-74.

Yale general studies. (1935). Journal of Adult Education, 7(2), 216.

Return to Breaking New Ground index

Return to Kellogg Project opening page

Return to Roger Hiemstra’s opening page