ADULT
EDUCATION: AN OVERVIEW
Adult education has been defined many
ways. In a broad
sense, the term means involvement by a person in learning
throughout a lifetime.
This involvement can mean participation
in formal programs designed for adults, such as evening
courses,
literacy classes, and lecture series, or informal learning
involvement, such as through a self-study effort or through
sponsorship of a church, community agency, or private group.
Some activities, such as
training in business and industry, labor
union education, and military education, that can be either
formal or informal.
A definition preferred by many involves
the inclusion of an
educational specialist who facilitates, directs, or provides
resources to adults in the pursuit of learning. The term "adult"
in such a definition usually refers to someone having
assumed
financial and social responsibility for self and often for
others. This emphasis
on adult education specialists has
resulted from a move to professionalize the field during the
past
30-40 years. However, recent research activities have
prompted
an additional meaning which highlights the potential
within and
preference by many adults for considerable self-directed study.
Subsequently, the meaning
of "adult education" continues to be in
a period of transition.
Many terms also have developed in the past
two decades that
are used synonymous with or similar to adult
education. Such
terms as recurrent education, education permanent,
non-formal
learning, and continuing education can be found in worldwide
adult education literature.
In the
developed in the mid l970's, "lifelong learning,"
often is used
interchangeably with adult education.
In much of the rest of the
world a similar word, "lifelong education," is
used to symbolize
not only education during the adult years, but also
education
throughout life.
An important feature distinguishing adult
education and
professional involvement worldwide regardless of terminology, is
the nature of participation. In many parts of the Western world,
adult learning usually is voluntary, meaning that
participants
decide on content, duration, and format. Elsewhere, though,
frequently there is more state control over curriculum and
format.
Breadth of the Adult Education Movement
Adult education, perhaps because of its
lifelong learning
characteristics, is a phenomenon that truly is worldwide. In
fact, adults make up the most rapidly growing component of
education. Most third
world countries utilize adult education to
improve literacy, to upgrade occupational competence, and for
community development.
Most Socialist and Communist nations use
adult learning programs not only for literacy and national
development, but also for political indoctrination. The Western
world also uses adult education for some of the above
reasons,
but most efforts are either for promoting personal
improvement or
for helping participants cope with the rapidity of social
change.
Organizations like UNESCO,
the International Bureau of Education,
and the International Labor Organization promote various
adult
education activities that bridge national borders and beliefs.
Several forces have come together during
the past 25 years
to heighten the need for learning throughout life. A major force
has been the rapidity and constancy of change. A term introduced
in l970 labeled difficulties to cope with change as
future shock.
More recently the miniaturization
and expanding use of computers
has only served to heighten the social change being
experienced
by many.
Another force, and related to the first,
has been changes in
the nature of occupational requirements. The constancy of job
obsolescence, frequent requirement for retraining, and increases
in service occupations are some of the resulting
features. Even
in underdeveloped and non-industrialized nations,
efforts
frequently are made by international agencies or local
governments to use advanced technology in solving many local
developmental problems, thereby creating huge education and
training needs.
A final force has been the fairly radical
changes in life
styles being experienced throughout the world. For example, many
Asian countries are moving
to emulate some Western world values.
Several Communist
countries are having to cope with doctrine and
social approaches that have not lived up to initial
expectations.
Many developing countries
have experienced ever widening gaps
between the poor and the wealthy. In much of the Western world
an increase in longevity, a constant necessity to cope
with
economic inflation, additional leisure, and increased levels
of
education have all combined to create large needs for adult
education.
Adults
As Learners
A positive belief in personal ability to learn throughout life
appears to be an important by-product of
this growth in adult education. But this positive view wasn't
always present. It
was deemed a major breakthrough in l928 when
American Edward Thorndike
published research showing that
although learning ability peaked at about age 2l, the ability
to
learn actually persisted thereafter. Others carried out research
with adults in the l930s and determined that declines in
ability
were less than previously believed. In the l950s through
longitudinal research and improved test taking techniques which
removed speed of response, adults were found capable of gains
with age in certain conceptual thinking tests. Researchers since
then have refined this knowledge and generally report the
potential of intelligence and aptitude improvement throughout
life.
The actual number involved annually in
adult education is
difficult to determine because so many definitions of
educational
participation exist.
Estimates based on U.S. Census information
suggest that 20 million or more adults participate in a
variety
of formalized adult education programs each year. Generally,
though, such numbers do not account for several additional
million involved in various informal learning activities.
Additionally, when the
numbers engaged in self-directed study
through study circles, independent learning, learning
exchanges,
and learning networks are included, the enormity of
involvement
can be seen. Some
researchers estimate that nine out of ten U.S.
adults annually engage in some form of learning
endeavor. Many
other countries especially the developed nations,
experience
similar involvement in learning by adults.
Such heavy involvement has not been limited
just to younger
adults. In the
Participation by people
older than 30 has increased, for example,
confirming that adult learning ability is continuous throughout
life. As one indicator,
in l980 there were 750,000 people 35 and
older involved with programs at institutions of higher
education.
By the year 2,000 it is
projected that this figure will about
double. As another
example the Elderhostel, a university-based
short course program for people over 60, was initiated in
l975.
The program has grown
annually throughout
Elderhostel programs each
year. Programming through community
colleges, university gerontology centers, senior centers, and
state or local aging commissions provide additional
opportunities
for the older population.
Continuing education programs for
women, the disadvantaged, and those requiring English as a
second
language are other examples of more specialized programs
gaining
popularity in recent times.
History of Adult Education
The history of adult involvement in
learning dates back to
before words or symbols were recorded. As humans have progressed
up the evolutionary ladder there always has been a need
to learn
new things throughout life, such as sharing new hunting
skills,
adding to tribal lore, or discovering new uses of items in
nature's treasure chest.
The evolution of symbols, words, and
languages most
certainly heightened the need for more formal adult education.
Historical figures like
Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, and Jesus
spent considerable time in the education of adults. The
invention of the printing press also changed the course of
human
history in some fundamental ways and provided an abundance of
educational resources.
The close of the l8th century saw adult
education begin to
move from several centuries of primarily religious
orientation to
a response to the advance of industrialization. In
this change also took on a flavor of concern by some for
welfare
of the poor.
Schools for Bible reading began to give way to
adult schools where the poor were taught to read. By the early
part of the l9th century Mechanics' Institutions were
established
in the principal towns throughout
educational needs of working class people.
About this same time in
for a way to help Danes who had suffered various losses
in the
Napoleonic
Wars. He used as a vehicle the folk high school, an
institutional setting for farmers and artisans to become aware of
their country's rich history, culture, and language. There now
are some 90 folk schools in
are folk schools in other Nordic countries, the
many European countries, several
The development of public libraries in the
mid-l800s, higher
education opportunities for adults that began around l900, the
Workers' Education
Association designed for working class people
that began soon after that, and the Open University
movement of
the mid l960s are additional
contributions. The
world-wide interest in literacy training,
especially in developing countries, during the past three
decades
is another important historical feature.
The History of Adult Education in the US
The US has experienced a rich history of adult education that
goes back to before the country was formed. Colonists in the
l6th century required various forms of adult education,
such as
religious training, political education, and apprenticeship
opportunities, just to survive the rigors of settling and
establishing a new country.
Benjamin Franklin has been referred to by
some as the actual
"father"
of adult education. This multi-talented
individual
counted among his many accomplishments the formation of a
men's
discussion club in l727.
Known as the "Junto," this club was
formed to explore through discussion a variety of
intellectual
problems. The
public library, and the American Philosophical Society are
only
some of the institutions that can trace linkages to the Junto.
The growth of the country during the l9th
century stimulated
considerable adult education innovations. It was within this
setting that the first daily newspapers and several magazines
were established.
Although several universities had been
established prior to l800, they met primarily the educational
needs of only a few elite young people. The need to spread
information beyond the minds of these few was great enough that
in l830 the first series of popular lectures for adults
was
offered by Yale Professor Benjamin Silliman. This "outreach"
idea spread and by the end of the century "university
extension"
was a common feature of many higher education
institutions.
Paralleling this university outreach was
the thinking and
organizing by Josiah Holbrook of an innovative program.
Holbrook, initially an
educator of youth, was influenced by
Silliman and became a
popular lecturer throughout
He helped to establish an
educational society and nation-wide
network of local study groups. Referred to as "lyceums," members
met to hear lectures on a variety of issues, and to help
create
educational institutions like libraries, museums, and public or
"common"
schools. The first lyceum was started in
l826 and by
l835 the movement peaked with about 3,500 local lyceums.
Toward the latter part of the l9th century
some new forms of
adult education began to emerge. In l874 John Vincent helped to
establish at
Sunday
school teachers. Its popularity grew quickly and many
participants other than religious teachers began to attend. A
subsequent broadening of the curriculum proved even more popular
and this rich heritage of classes, lectures, cultural
offerings,
political discussions, and entertainment continues today. Some
interesting offshoots of the Chautauqua movement also developed.
The Chautauqua Literary
and
program and a monthly magazine existed from around l880 to
l9l4.
Correspondence study and
book-of-the-month reading clubs, too,
can be traced to Chautauqua.
Tent show chautauquas
were another progeny of the
Chautauqua
influence. These traveling tent shows began in l903
when two enterprising lecture agents realized that a
"circuit"
which brought lecturers, entertainment, and some culture to
people throughout the country would be quite popular and
profitable. Peaking in
the l920s, these traveling chautauquas
eventually gave way to radio, movies, and changes prompted by
the
automobile.
The closing of the l9th and beginning of
the 20th century
saw
component of a healthy nation.
In l862 the Morrill Act
established "Land Grant" Colleges of Agriculture and
Mechanical
Arts in
each state. In l887 the Hatch Act enabled agricultural
experimentation stations to be developed throughout the country.
The l9l4 Smith-Lever Act
established an Agricultural Extension
Service as a vehicle to
provide agricultural adult education in
every state. Thriving
yet today but now known as the Cooperative
Extension Service, this
organization provided to youth (through
its 4-H programs) and adults agricultural, family life,
home
economics, leadership, and community development education.
During the first quarter of the l900s
there were several
other significant adult education events. The Smith-Hughes Act
of l9l7 provided for vocational education through the
public
schools for both youth and adults. The heavy influx of
immigrants needing to learn English and other skills also
created
adult education needs.
Their involvement in "Americanization
Programs" was an
important impetus for the growth of public
school adult education.
These primarily "evening" schools
typically experienced steady growth in participants throughout
the teens and twenties.
There also were established during this
period two important
organizations concerned with professionalization of adult
education. In l924 the
National Education Association created a
Department
of Adult Education. In l926 the American Association
of Adult Education was created through initial financial
support
by the Carnegie Corporation. Research on adult education, the
development of professional literature, and an annual conference
were important by-products of such groups. In l95l these two
groups were combined to form the Adult Education Association
of
the
National
Association of Public School Adult Educators (NAPSAE).
Gradual decline in public
school adult education programs and the
emergence new roles and clientele resulted in a later name
change
to the National Association of Public Continuing
Education
(NAPCAE). To promote
national unity and create a stronger
national voice for adult education, both AEA and NAPCAE merged
in
l982 to form the now existing American Association of
Adult and
Continuing Education
(AAACE).
The federal government's role in adult
education began to
accelerate during the l950s and 60s. The GI Bill of Rights
developed after WWII, expenditures for military education, and
involvement in labor force training through the l965 Manpower Act
represent some of this involvement. Interest in civil liberties,
social change, and providing greater opportunities to poorer
people that developed during the l960s also stimulated some
adult
education efforts. The
Economic Opportunity Act of l964 provided
funds for adult basic education (ABE), a program designed
to
combat illiteracy problems.
In l966 the Adult Education Act was
passed to provide support and leadership for the still
existing
ABE
program.
Finally, in l976 some federal legislation
spearheaded by
Senator Walter Mondale was
dubbed the Lifelong Learning Act. The
legislation, itself, was approved but funds were never
appropriated. However, the
legislation drew considerable
attention to adult education, prompted new research and
literature, and helped facilitate some connections between adult
education activities in the
countries.
The Historical Heritage for Today's Adult Education Movement
Two important events took place during the l960s which
affected the direction of adult education in the
In l968 Malcolm Knowles, a
professor of adult education,
introduced adult educators to the term, "andragogy."
Andragogy as
a term to refer to teaching adults was not new, as
several
European socialist
countries such as Hungry,
educators, for example, place teaching and learning within a
system called "anthropogony,"
which is subdivided into pedagogy
(dealing
with youth education) and andragogy (dealing with adult
education). The ideas
foundational to andragogy created
considerable dialogue, debate, and scholarship by American adult
educators during the l970s and 80s, and perhaps did more to
draw
attention to adult education than any other activity during the
20th century.
Another event during the 60s was the
beginning of a focus on
adults as potential self-directed learners. Cyril Houle, also a
professor of adult education, studied adult learning activity
and
discovered three distinct learning orientations. This prompted
subsequent research by Allen Tough, a Canadian professor of
adult
education, who substantiated that most adults determined they
frequently express preference for learning to be self-directed
in
nature. The work of
Houle and Tough spawned tremendous research,
literature, and debate that continues to today.
Professionalism of the Field
Adult education worldwide has undergone
considerable
transformation during the past few decades. Changes in the
United States also have
been quite remarkable in terms of not
only large numbers engaged in learning, but also the
number
working in the field.
Who Are the Adult Educators?
It is not easy to describe those who consider themselves
to be adult educators as so many people now work in
some capacity with adult learners. In addition, many
adult education positions throughout the United States
are filled with capable and devoted people who do not
have
a formal college degree or who have degrees in areas
other than
adult education, including many volunteers, part-time adult
educators, and individuals for whom adult education
responsibility is only incidental to specialization in some other
area. No reliable
estimate exists because of such definition
problems, but it is believed that as many as l0 million people
work with adult education on a part-time basis.
There are a variety of roles performed by
people who
consider themselves to be professional adult educators, with
perhaps as many as 250,000 people making a full time living.
Continuing education
administrators, in-service training
specialists in the medical field, adult education teachers,
professors of adult education, adult education counselors, and
trainers or consultants in human resource development are only
a
few of the types of professionals that can be described. In
fact, currently adult education is a growth area in terms
of
available professional positions.
Training of Adult Educators
The training of adult educators generally takes one of two
forms in North America.
One form is university training,
typically at either the Masters or Doctoral level. The
first doctorates in adult education, for example, were
awarded in l935 by Teachers College of Columbia University.
However, in the twenty
years prior to l955, only fifteen
U.S. colleges and
universities had established adult
education graduate programs.
It was at that point that some
sharing among these programs began to be formalized.
Subsequently, in l957 through a Kellogg
Foundation grant the
Commission of Professors of
Adult Education held its first formal
meeting on the
representing l5 universities were present. The organization has
grown steadily since then, to where currently there are
some 250
members representing nearly l00 colleges and universities
throughout
adult education. In
any given year thousands of individuals
graduate with a Masters degree and 200 or more graduate with a
Doctoral
degree. Few undergraduate training opportunities in
adult education exist, although some experts suggest they
will
become more prevalent in the future. Some other countries do
offer undergraduate training as well as graduate training.
Another form is the in-service training of
individuals who
in some manner work with adult learners. This includes short-
term workshops, conferences, special institutes for
teachers of
adults (often through local or state sponsorship), and
federally-
funded projects.
Professionalization of adult education
also has involved the
formation of many associations in the past two decades
representing some aspect of the adult education field. In
addition to AAACE described earlier which serves several
thousand
adult educators through its national office or through
various
affiliates, another large organization is the American Society
for Training and Development. ASTD has more than 30,000 people
affiliated with its national organization or local chapters.
There are nearly 200
professional associations, advisory
councils, and informational clearinghouses in the
in some way dealing with adult learners or professional
adult
educators.
Scholarship in adult education also is
quite extensive. For
example, the Adult Education Research Conference and the
Lifelong
Learning Research
Conference are only two of several national or
regional adult education research conferences held annually in
taking place. International
conferences on adult education,
international faculty exchanges, and international study tours on
adult education topics take place each year. The number of
professional journals publishing information related to adult
education also grows steadily.
Most countries, for example,
publish one or more adult education journals or magazines,
often
international in scope. In
the
Quarterly and Lifelong
learning are only two of approximately 30
journals related to adult education with a national
readership.
Literature in the world related to adult
education has grown
tremendously during the past 20 years. Thousands of books
broadly related to adult education can be found in a typical
university library. Some publishing
companies now focus many of
their efforts just on adult education. Finally, there now exist
several annual writing awards for adult education literature.
Adult
Education Programs in the United States
There are some similarities across
national boundaries in
terms of available adult education programs. For example, most
countries have adult literacy campaigns. Job training programs
also exist most places.
Other examples could be listed.
However, there frequently
are programs specific to the cultural
heritage or special needs of any particular country. This i
certainly true for the
The constantly changing American society
and fairly rapid
movement from a rural society to an urbanized nation in the
past
30 or 40 years has
resulted in a variety of specialized training
needs. Changes in
family structures and differing life style
preferences also have created a variety of educational needs.
Adult education responses to such change
have taken many
shapes and forms. One
group of programs has been under federal
or national sponsorship.
The oldest of these is the Federal
Extension
Service. Linked to Cooperative Extension Services in
every state, the organization provides leadership and
resources
aimed at a variety of adult needs. The Department of Education
is another sponsor of various programs or projects
affecting
adults, such as adult basic education, English as a second
language, and continuing higher education. The
of Labor also provides leadership for adult training
through such
programs as Job Corps, job retraining, and the Job Training
Partnership
Act. A variety of national foundations, too,
supply
national leadership and financial support for activities
related
to the education of adults. Various other government agencies,
national organizations, and professional associations promote
various types of adult education efforts.
At the state level several agencies or
organizations provide
support for adult education.
For example, State Departments of
Education sponsor various
programs related to such areas as
literacy training, vocational training, and adult education
designed for special populations. State-wide professional
organizations, foundations, and associations are other such
groups.
The local community typically is the
largest provider of
adult education programs.
Public schools, community education
programs, community colleges, universities, and vocational-
technical schools sponsor a variety of adult education
programs.
Cooperative Extension,
churches, labor unions, libraries,
museums, art galleries, proprietary schools, training
divisions
in business and industry, voluntary agencies, social
service
agencies, senior centers, and Y-programs are among the many
other
community organizations providing adult education
opportunities.
Some Special Issues
There are several special issues that need
to be mentioned
for the reader attempting to understand adult education,
especially adult education in the
Marginality and Fragmentation
Even given the impressive number of American adult
education programs, participants, and professionals,
the majority of public dollar support for educational
still goes to the education of youth. On the other
hand, the pressures to provide education of various types
for
adults mounts daily.
This has created a situation where adult
education officials typically have to fight very hard for
adequate financial support; frequently, adult education
programs
must pay for themselves or even make a profit for a parent
organization who in turn will utilize those monies for other than
adult education.
Several Foundations have supported adult
education in
various ways as a means of increasing the viability and
priority
of the field. The
Kellogg Foundation has been one of these
providing considerable support during the past three decades.
The Foundation's support
has ranged from assisting to build
continuing education centers on college campuses initiated in
l95l to more recent efforts to bring some unity to the
field. In
the l980s they provided support for three such
projects: l) A
Lifelong Learning Leaders
Retreat for representatives from 2l
professional adult education associations to develop various ways
of working together more effectively; 2) in cooperation
with the
National University
Continuing Education Association 40 leaders
from academe, business, government, and industry were
brought
together to discuss future problems and opportunities for
higher
education; 3) in cooperation with the
initial efforts have been made to establish a
Leadership
Development in Adult and Continuing Education.
The formation of the American Association
of Adult and
Continuing Education in
l982 is another sign that the field may
be becoming less fragmented. In addition, organizations like the
International Council for Adult
Education serve to provide some
overall coordination of adult education efforts.
The Problem of Illiteracy
Functional illiteracy among adults, or the inability of
an individual to use reading, writing and computational
skills
in everyday situations, is a world-wide problem. In more
advanced developing nations like Argentina the rate is about
20 percent; it is about 80
percent in most African
countries.
Unfortunately, the problem becomes more bleak
each
year due to huge population growth, limited finances, and
inadequate food supplies to maintain even minimal health
standards.
The problem also is immense in the
though a l982 report by the U.S. Bureau of Census showed
that 7l
percent of all Adults had earned a high school diploma, some
27
million adults cannot read and write well enough to fill out
a
job application or understand the label on a bottle of
medicine.
An additional 45 million
read with only minimum comprehension and
an estimated 3.6 million adults speak English poorly or
not at
all. Thus, more
than 70 million adults are essentially
nonliterate people.
Unfortunately, all public and private
literacy training
programs combined reach only about 4 million adults. In
addition, it is estimated that the number of those who cannot
read grows each year by more than two million. This situation
affects the country in many ways. One estimate puts the costs of
welfare and unemployment compensation due to illiteracy at 6
billion annually. The loss
of personal dignity, self-respect,
and ability to provide for others is immeasurable. Unless
drastic corrective measures are taken soon, an all-out war on
illiteracy suggests one expert, two of every three Americans
could be functionally or marginally illiterate by the year
2000.
There are three primary means used in the
past 20 years to
combat illiteracy.
The first has been considerable amounts of
federal money, often supplemented by state support, for such
programs as adult basic education. Most major cities and many
smaller ones in American have ABE programs offered primarily
through the public schools and/or community colleges.
Unfortunately, monies
spent seldom exceed l00 million nor reach
more than 2 million people annually.
Other literacy efforts have been mounted
by two
organizations located in
through volunteer teachers.
One is Literacy Volunteers of
America, Inc. (AVA), a
national organization founded in l962 by
Ruth Colvin. It operates on the premise that well trained
and
supported volunteers can become effective tutors of
adults. In
the past several years, LVA has grown to more than 200
local
programs in most states.
During that period, nearly l00,000
volunteers and dedicated professionals have helped improve the
abilities of more than l00,000 adults in basic reading and
English
as a second language (ESL).
The second organization is Laubach Literacy International
(LLI). LLI was established in l955 to extend the
work of
literacy pioneer Dr. Frank Laubach
who had pioneered a system for
teaching some illiterate adults in the
l930s. His approach, adapted to hundreds of
languages worldwide,
is still used today.
Laubach Literacy Action was organized in
l968 by tutors in
communities. This
volunteer membership arm of LLI has some
50,000 trained individuals
who work in more than 600 communities.
Each year about 60,000
adults are helped with reading, writing or
ESL.
The newest literacy effort is a Coalition
for Literacy
formed in the early l980s.
The Coalition is a group of
organizations, including various professional associations,
literacy groups, and private businesses, working toward the
eradication of illiteracy.
In the mid-l980s the group launched a
national multi-media ad campaign to focus national attention
on
illiteracy.
Several states also are increasing their
literacy efforts.
For example,
their public libraries to establish literacy programs.
established a goal of reducing its 800,000 illiterates in half by
l990. Other states have made special efforts to
reduce
illiteracy among special populations such as minorities or
incarcerated people. In
addition, higher education institutions
have increased research and training related to
illiteracy. It
is hoped these efforts may help reverse this national
problem and
serve as a model for other nations.
Continuing Education for Women
The woman's movement during the past two decades has
affected the adult education field. To begin with, advanced
degrees awarded to American women increased dramatically
during the l960s and 70s according to the National
third of all Master's degrees awarded in the early 60s;
that
figure had increased to more than half by the l980s. The
proportion of Phds earned by women
increased similarly from l6 to
32
percent.
Women also make up slightly more than half
of all
participants in continuing education programs. Several adult
education programs for women have been established around the
country. The
Center
for the Continuing Education of Women. Saint Mary of the
Woods offers a women's
external degree.
has a re-entry educational program for low income
women. The
training program.
education program for women.
Training in Business and Industry
Some experts estimate that as many as 40 billion dollars
are expended annually in training efforts and that amount
may reach l0 percent of all corporate revenues by
l990.
The constancy of change
and technological development has
created a continual march by most adults toward occupational
obsolescence. Borrowing
from nuclear physics the notion
of half-life, it is assumed that new information, technology,
and development constantly evolve such every 5-l0 years a
person
becomes roughly half as competent to do the job for which
original training was intended. Subsequently, many adults
must turn to periodic educational experiences to maintain,
regain, or obtain new competence.
The response by organizations and
professionals in the past
few years has been phenomenal. Training units, assessment
centers, job clubs, career counseling, apprenticeship
opportunities, workers' sabbaticals, and training by phone,
computer, and satellite are only some of the programs in
existence today. The
numbers involved professionally as trainers
and consultants also has increased dramatically in recent
years.
In addition, nearly 300
involved with preparing professionals for human resource
development work.
Federal legislators also are responding to
the growth in
training activities.
Such programs as the Job Training
Partnership Act, the Vocational
Education Act, and the tax code's
employee educational assistance provisions provide some
financial
support for training.
Emerging federal legislative thinking
includes such ideas as providing tax credits for training,
using
Individual Retirement Accounts
(IRAs) for retraining, and the
establishing individual training accounts patterned after the
IRAs.
The Future
Several trends with implications for adult
education appear
to be emerging.
Changing Demographics
The American Citizenry is becoming older. Today's newborn
can expect to live nearly 75 years. Males who are 65
today can
expect to live to age 80.
Women 65 years old can expect to live
another 19 years.
Also, as was noted earlier many older people
are expecting and even demanding more educational
opportunities.
Add to this the fact that
the population overall is achieving
ever higher educational levels, time for leisure is
increasing,
and learning needs of various special populations are
increasing,
it appears likely pressures for more education
throughout life
will become even greater. Subsequently, demand for both
adult
education programs and trained adult education professionals
is likely to grow in the future.
Community-Based Programs
Another apparent trend is the development of various
community-based programs that typically are independent from
governmental or traditional adult education agencies.
Frequently known as grass
roots operations, the missions and
operation of such programs usually are in the hands
of participants, themselves. In other words, participants
become empowered to act on their own behalf.
One such example is the Highlander
Research and Education
Center
in New Market,
Horton in 1932 as the
has been active in various social issues since then. Its
dedication to the belief that poor, working-class adults can
take
charge of their lives and circumstances has been a growing
inspiration to the empowerment notion. Subsequently,
organizations like the National Congress of Neighborhood Women,
the
Exchange, the
universities use a wide variety of educational techniques in
helping people meet their own educational needs.
The Haves and the Havenots
There is one final trend to be mentioned here with
implications for adult education.
There appears to be
developing in the United States, as exists in many
other countries, very real divisions between what has been
called
by some the "haves" and the "havenots." The
growing affluence of
some (for examples, the "yuppies" of the
mid-80s) in contrast
with the declining purchasing power of others as
exemplified by
illiteracy and unemployment are creating the potential for
clashes of values and expectations. Thus, a potentially large
task for future adult educators may well be to not only
help with
problems of job training and illiteracy, but also with values
clarification, communication, and the empowerment of people.
Roger Hiemstra
Professor of Adult Education
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June 1, 2003