Self-Directed
Learning
Hiemstra, R. (1994). Self-directed learning.
In T. Husen & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), The International Encyclopedia
of Education (second edition), Oxford: Pergamon Press. Reprinted here by
permission.
Most adults spend a considerable time
acquiring information and learning new skills. The rapidity of change, the
continuous creation of new knowledge, and an ever-widening access to
information make such acquisitions necessary. Much of this learning takes place
at the learner's initiative, even if available through formal settings. A
common label given to such activity is self-directed learning. In essence,
self-directed learning is seen as any study form in which individuals have
primary responsibility for planning, implementing, and even evaluating the
effort. Most people, when asked, will proclaim a preference for assuming such
responsibility whenever possible.
Research, scholarship, and interest in
self-directed learning has literally exploded around the world in recent years.
Few topics, if any, have received more attention by adult educators than
self-directed learning. Related books, articles, monographs, conferences, and
symposia abound. In addition, numerous new programs, practices, and resources for
facilitating self-directed learning have been created. These include such
features as learning contracts, self-help books, support groups,
open-university programs, electronic networking, and computer-assisted
learning. This article extracts some meaning from all this information.
What is Self-Directed Learning?
Several things are known about self-directed
learning: (a) individual learners can become empowered to take increasingly
more responsibility for various decisions associated with the learning
endeavor; (b) self-direction is best viewed as a continuum or characteristic
that exists to some degree in every person and learning situation; (c)
self-direction does not necessarily mean all learning will take place in
isolation from others; (d) self-directed learners appear able to transfer
learning, in terms of both knowledge and study skill, from one situation to
another; (e) self-directed study can involve various activities and resources,
such as self-guided reading, participation in study groups, internships,
electronic dialogues, and reflective writing activities; (f) effective roles
for teachers in self-directed learning are possible, such as dialogue with
learners, securing resources, evaluating outcomes, and promoting critical
thinking; (g) some educational institutions are finding ways to support
self-directed study through open-learning programs, individualized study
options, non-traditional course offerings, and other innovative programs.
This latter component, educational
institutions developing innovative responses to self-directed learning
preferences, has spawned several unique programming efforts. For example,
establishment of the Open University in England in 1969 generated similar
efforts around the world. St. Francis Xavier University (Antigonish,
Nova Scotia), Teacher College (Columbia University, New York City), Syracuse
University's Adult Education Program (Syracuse, New York), and the Ontario
Institute for Studies in Education (Toronto, Canada) have incorporated
self-directed learning principles into various of their adult education
efforts. These latter two (Syracuse University and Ontario Institute) have
assimilated some computer-mediated instruction into their programs.
Brookfield (1986), a British adult educator
now residing in the United States, describes other higher education efforts
where individualized, self-directed learning opportunities exist, including
locations in Germany, Denmark, and Eastern Europe. Brockett and Hiemstra (1991)
describe several self-directed efforts in China, Indonesia, Japan, Norway,
Russia, Saudi Arabia, Sweden, and Tanzania. Knowles and Associates (1984)
describe various self-directed learning efforts in various government,
industry, health, religion, and military settings.
History
of Self-Directed Learning
Self-directed learning has existed even from
classical antiquity. For example, self-study played an important part in the
lives of such Greek philosophers as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Other
historical examples of self-directed learners included Alexander the Great,
Caesar, Erasmus, and Descartes. Social conditions in Colonial America and a
corresponding lack of formal educational institutions necessitated that many
people learn on their own.
Early scholarly efforts to understand self-directed
learning took place some 150 years ago in the United States. Craik (1840) documented and celebrated the self-education
efforts of several people. About this same time in Great Britain, Smiles (1859)
published a book entitled Self-Help, that applauded the value of
personal development.
However, it is during the last three decades
that self-directed learning has become a major research area. Groundwork was
laid through the observations of Houle (1961) (University of Chicago,
Illinois). He interviewed 22 adult learners and classified them into three
categories based on reasons for participation in learning: (a) goal-oriented,
who participate mainly to achieve some end goal; (b) activity-oriented, who
participate for social or fellowship reasons; (c) learning-oriented, who
perceive of learning as an end in itself. It is this latter group that
resembles the self-directed learner identified in subsequent research.
The first attempt to better understand
learning-oriented individuals was made by Tough, A Canadian researcher and one
of Houle's doctoral students. His dissertation effort
to analyze self-directed teaching activities and subsequent research with
additional subjects resulted in a book, The Adult's Learning Projects (1979). This work has stimulated many
similar studies with various populations in various locations.
In parallel scholarship during this same time
period, Knowles popularized in North America the term, andragogy, with
corresponding adult instructional processes. His 1975 publication, Self-directed Learning, provided
foundational definitions and assumptions that guided much subsequent research:
(a) self-directed learning assumes that humans grow in capacity and need to be
self-directing; (b) learners' experiences are rich resources for learning; (c)
individuals learn what is required to perform their evolving life tasks; (d) an
adult's natural orientation is task or problem-centered learning; (e)
self-directed learners are motivated by various internal incentives, such as
need for self-esteem, curiosity, desire to achieve, and satisfaction of
accomplishment.
Another important research effort was Guglielmino's (1977) dissertation. She developed the
Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS), an instrument subsequently used
by many researchers to measure self-directed readiness or to compare various
self-directed learning aspects with numerous characteristics. Spear and
Mocker's (1984) work on organizing circumstances showed how important it is to
understand a learner's environmental circumstances in promoting self-directed
learning.
Establishment of an annual International
Symposium on Self-Directed Learning in 1987 by Long and his colleagues
completes this historical picture. The Symposia have spawned many publications,
research projects, and theory building efforts by researchers throughout the
world.
Competing
Concepts
As with the development of many new ideas,
self-directed learning has created some confusion in that many related concepts
are often used interchangeably or in similar ways. Examples include
self-directed learning, self-planned learning, learning projects,
self-education, self-teaching, autonomous learning, autodidaxy, independent
study, and open learning. Yet these terms typically offer varied, though
sometimes subtly different, emphases. To illustrate some of these differences,
six competing terms will be examined. Section 1.4 provides a conceptual model
and corresponding definition of self-directed learning.
(a) Self-planned
learning and learning projects - Tough's (1979) research on people engaged in
learning projects involved obtaining information on "a series of related
episodes, adding up to at least seven hours" where "more than half of
the person's total motivation is to gain and retain certain fairly clear knowledge
and skill, or to produce some other lasting change" (p. 7). Tough used the
seven-hour parameter because he felt it approximated a typical working day and
separated brief learning activities from more major endeavors. Actually, he and
many others have found that most learning projects far exceed the seven-hour
minimum. Nearly 100 learning project surveys with various groups in ten
countries have confirmed that approximately 90 percent of adults conduct at
least one intentional learning project annually. A typical adult spends about
500 hours a year in such learning with approximately 70 percent planned by the
learner. This self-planning predominance spawned considerable research on
self-directed learning.
(b) Autonomous
learning - autonomy often is associated with independence of thought,
individualized decision-making, and critical intelligence. Gibbs (1979) notes
this concept "is probably the most familiar, for it is part of an
individualistic, anti-authoritarian ideology . . . deep-rooted in Western
capitalistic democracies" (p. 121). Chene
(1983), another Canadian researcher, suggests autonomy stands for psychological
and methodological learning dimensions. Boud (1988)
provides several ideas on developing student autonomy. Candy (1991), an Australian
adult educator, suggests that continuous learning is a process in which adults
manifest personality attributes of personal autonomy in self-managing learning
efforts. He also profiles various autonomous learner characteristics (pp.
459-66).
(c) Autodidaxy -
Candy (1991) urges that self-direction be differentiated as a goal for learner
control of decision-making from an educational method in which teachers use
processes for promoting self-direction. He proposes autodidaxy as a term for
referring to self-instruction which takes place outside of formal institutional
settings.
(d) Self-education -
self-directed learning can be called something else from country to country or
culture to culture. For example, in Russia it is known as self-education:
The role of
self-education naturally increases in adults, for the potential possibilities
of the personality are extremely great, and the formed
world outlook . . . will make it possible to develop one's abilities more
successfully, systematically and comprehensively. This is especially true since
life does not stand still and society is developing scientifically and
technically. Anyone who does not engage in self-education, voluntarily or not,
lags behind the demands of the time. (Ruvinsky 1986
p. 31) Ruvinsky also describes several Russians who
engage in self-education.
(e) Open learning -
individualized study often is associated with external degree, open learning,
or non-traditional programs where most learning takes place outside formal
classrooms. One of the most widely known is England's Open University, started
in 1969, and emulated now in many countries. Currently, development of many
distance education efforts using computer-assisted learning is necessitating
new research and understanding regarding how technology can enhance
self-directed learning.
Synthesizing
Relevant Research
There have been many overviews of
self-directed learning research. Brockett and Hiemstra (1991), Caffarella and
O'Donnell (1987), Candy (1991), and Merriam and Caffarella (1991) are some
important sources to read.
Confessore and Confessore (1992) conducted a
three-iteration delphi study involving 22
self-directed learning experts from several countries. Consensus was reached in
several areas, such as the most important self-directed learning research
findings, research trends, practical applications, and published works.
Based on such literature and research, five
major findings can be extracted: (a) several instruments for measuring some
self-directed learning aspect have been developed; (b) self-directed learning
readiness has been associated with a various performance, psychological, and
social variables; (c) a majority of self-directed learning research efforts
have been qualitative in nature; (d) practice implications and techniques for
facilitating self-directed learning are being devised; (e) a coherent
self-directed learning theory is still not available.
Towards
a Theory of Self-Directed Learning
Some of the confusion still existing and the
fact consensus views regarding self-directed learning just becoming available
are some reasons a coherent theory is not available. Candy (1991) outlines some
useful dimensions of a theory and cautions about the often unrecognized
dichotomy that exists between self-directed learning as a process and as a
goal. Long (1989) also urges any self-directed learning theory building be
examined in terms of sociological, pedagogical, and psychological dimensions.
Brockett and Hiemstra (1991) synthesized many
aspects of knowledge about the topic and conceptualized the PRO (Personal
Responsibility Orientation) model. This model recognizes both differences and
similarities between self-directed learning as an instructional method and
learner self-direction as a set of personality characteristics. Personal
responsibility refers to individuals assuming ownership for their own thoughts
and actions. This does not necessarily mean control over all personal life
circumstances or environmental conditions, but it does mean people can control
how they respond to situations.
In terms of learning, it is the ability or
willingness of individuals to take control that determines any potential for
self-direction. This means that learners have choices about the directions they
pursue. Along with this goes responsibility for accepting any consequences of
one's thoughts and actions as a learner.
Brockett and Hiemstra (1991) view the term
self-directed learning (see Figure 1) as an instructional process centering on
such activities as assessing needs, securing learning resources, implementing
learning activities, and evaluating learning. Hiemstra and Sisco (1990) refer
to this as individualizing instruction, a process focusing on characteristics of
the teaching-learning transaction. In essence, this aspect of self-direction
centers on those factors external to the individual. Hiemstra and Brockett
(1994) talk about how to overcome resistance to self-directed learning.
While much early research and seminal
thinking (see section 1.1) focused on this process orientation, more recent
research has related to better understanding various personal or personality
characteristics of successful self-directed learners. Self-concept, readiness
for self-direction, the role of experience, and learning styles have been some
of the characteristics. This emphasis on a learner's personal characteristics
or internal factors is shown in Figure 1 as learner self-direction. In essence,
learner self-direction refers to those individual characteristics that lead to
taking primary responsibility for personal learning.
Consequently, self-direction in learning is a
term recognizing both external factors that facilitate a learner taking primary
responsibility, and internal factors that predispose an adult accepting
responsibility for learning-related thoughts and actions. At the same time
there is a strong connection between self-directed learning and learner
self-direction. Both internal and external aspects of self-direction can be
viewed on a continuum and optimal learning conditions exist when a learner's
level of self-direction is balanced with the extent to which self-directed
learning opportunities are possible.
The PRO model's final component is
represented by a circle that encompasses all other elements. While the
individual's personality characteristics and the teaching and learning process
are starting points for understanding self-direction, the social context
provides an arena in which the learning activity or results are created. To
fully understand self-directed learning activity, the interface existing between
individual learners, any facilitator or learning resource, and appropriate
social dimensions must be recognized. Thus, Brockett and Hiemstra recommend
that self-direction in learning be used as an umbrella definition recognizing
those external factors facilitating adults taking primary responsibility for
learning and those internal factors or personality characteristics that incline
one toward accepting such responsibility.
Usefulness of Self-Directed Learning Approaches
Formal education and schooling remain highly
valued in most societies, and many educators, employers, policy-makers, and
average citizens find it difficult to place high value on what is learned on
your own or outside the formal system. However, adult educators have shown how
non-traditional programs, distance education, and self-directed learning
efforts can meet many challenges associated with keeping current on constantly
changing knowledge. Self-directed learning researchers have challenged the
assumption that adult learning can take place only in the presence of
accredited teachers. In addition, because people can carry out self-directed
learning outside of training organizations or formal schools, many
administrators are beginning to look toward such learning as a means for stretching
scarce education dollars.
Several researchers also have demonstrated
that giving some learning responsibility back to learners in many instances is
more beneficial than other approaches. For example, in the workplace employees
with busy schedules can learn necessary skills at their own convenience through
self-study. Some technical staff in organizations who must constantly upgrade
their knowledge can access new information through an individualized resource
center.
Perhaps most important of all, self-directed
learning works! Many adults succeed as self-directed learners when they could
not if personal responsibility for learning decisions were not possible. Some
will even thrive in ways never thought possible when they learn how to take
personal responsibility. In many respects, future learners will need to become
very self-directed throughout their lives just to cope with the enormity of
information available to them.
3. Self-Directed Learning Controversies
There have been several associated controversies.
Many sources shown in the bibliography discuss them. Three of the most
prominent in the literature will be discussed in this section.
(a) Brookfield
(1988) provided several critical reflections on self-directed learning. For
example, he suggested the over-identification of adult education researchers
and practitioners with self-directed learning is unwise because of its
inadequate theoretical base. He also suggested that research on self-directed
learning up to 1988 had been carried out mainly with middle-class, white
subjects. Another concern was his perception that research on self-directed
learning had been primarily quantitative in nature.
Comment. As
discussed elsewhere in this article there continues to be a need for more
adequate theory pertaining to self-directed learning. Brockett and Hiemstra
(1991) and others have been working toward that end. Groups traditionally
viewed as hard-to-reach or outside the middle-class mainstream actually have
been studied more widely than suggested by Brookfield. Regarding his concern
about excessive use of quantitative research, Long and others associated with
the annual International Symposium on Self-Directed Learning (see the
bibliography) have discovered that the majority of research efforts actually
have been qualitative in nature.
(b) Another major
controversy has centered on Guglielmino's (1977)
SDLRS, an instrument used by many self-directed learning researchers. It has
been criticized as difficult to use with certain groups, without appropriate
validation, and both conceptually and methodologically flawed (Field, 1989).
Comment.
Guglielmino, Long, and McCune (1989) refuted the criticisms in a subsequent
publication. The instrument appears to have some limitations in terms of with
whom and how it is used, but if employed appropriately appears to be
appropriate in helping to better understand aspects of self-directed learning.
However, additional instruments are needed for future quantitative research.
(c) Candy (1991)
suggests that research on self-directed learning has been stalemated in recent
years because of the absence of a consistent theoretical base, continued
confusion over the term's meaning, and the use of inappropriate research
paradigms.
Comment.
Candy's criticisms seem consistent with what others have reported and should
prompt new thinking and research.
Emerging Trends and Issues
A number of trends are emerging from the
research on self-directed learning. Confessore and Confessore's
(1992) delphi study also obtained consensus views on
several trends.
(a) One trend is
research on the feasibility of self-directed learning meeting some job-related
training needs in industry (Ravid, 1987). For
example, during the 1992 International Symposium, nine out of thirty-five
concurrent sessions dealt with self-directed learning in the workplace.
(b) Another trend is
efforts to better understand the role of technology in self-directed learning
(Brockett and Hiemstra, 1991). In the 1992 International Symposium, eight of
thirty-five sessions dealt with self-directed learning and technology or
distance education.
(c) A third trend
described here relates to researchers' focus on enhancing self-directed
learning by better understanding environmental factors (Spear and Mocker,
1984). For example, Hiemstra (1991) and his colleagues describe various ways
physical, social, and psychological aspects of the learning environment can be
affected.
4.1
Future Research Issues
Even though several research trends are
observable, there still remain much needed research.
(a) Additional
research is required to test conceptual ideas like the PRO model (Brockett and
Hiemstra, 1991), and other emerging ideas to ensure the evolvement of a theory
of self-directed learning.
(b) Ways need to be
found whereby organizations and educators can facilitate self-directed learning
and enhance critical thinking skills without impinging on the value of
self-directed or spontaneous learning. For example, Smith and Associates (1990)
describe how learners can be helped to learn, ask critical questions, and
reflect on what they are learning.
(c) It is important
that better ways of incorporating computer technology and electronic
communication into self-directed learning be determined as more distance
education programs are created.
(d) Future research
is needed on such issues as expanding the repertoire of design and methodology
for studying self-directed learning, how competencies necessary for effective
self-directed learning are developed, and how the quality of self-directed
learning resources can be measured.
(e) Ways of
measuring and maintaining quality in self-directed learning need to be
determined.
(f) The most
appropriate roles for educators and educational organizations in relation to
self-directed learning need to be found.
(g) Finally, ways
for learners and others to evaluate the value and effectiveness of
self-directed learning need to be developed.
References
Boud, D (ed) 1988 Developing Student Autonomy in Learning.
Kogan Page Limited, London, UK
Brockett, R G, Hiemstra, R 1991 Self-direction in Learning: Perspectives in
Theory, Research, and Practice. Routledge, London, UK (available electronically)
Brookfield, S D 1986 Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning. Jossey-Bass
Publishers, San Francisco, California
Brookfield, S D 1988 Conceptual,
methodological and practical ambiguities in self-directed learning. In: Long, H
B and Associates 1988 Self-directed Learning:
Application & theory. Department of Adult Education, Tucker Hall, The
University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
Caffarella, R S, O'Donnell, J M 1987
Self-directed adult learning: A critical paradigm revisited. Adult Education Quarterly, 37: 199-211.
Candy, P C 1991 Self-direction for Lifelong Learning. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San
Francisco, California
Chene, A 1983 The concept of autonomy in adult education: A
philosophical discussion. Adult Education
Quarterly, 1: 38-47.
Confessore, G J, Confessore, S J 1992 In
search of consensus in the study of self-directed learning. In: Long, H B and
Associates 1992 Self-directed Learning:
Application and research. Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing
Professional and Higher Education, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma
Craik, G L 1840 Pursuit
of Knowledge Under Difficulties: Its Pleasures and Rewards. Harper &
Brothers, New York
Field, L 1989 An investigation into the
structure, validity, and reliability of Guglielmino's
Self-Directed Learning Scale. Adult
Education Quarterly, 39: 125-139
Gibbs, B 1979 Autonomy and authority in
education. Journal of Philosophy of
Education, 13: 119-132
Guglielmino, L M 1977 Development of the
self-directed learning readiness scale (Doctoral dissertation, University of
Georgia). Dissertation Abstracts
International 1978 38: 6467A
Guglielmino, L M, Long, H B, McCune, S K 1989
Reactions to Field's investigation into the SDLRS. Adult Education Quarterly, 39: 235-245
Hiemstra, R (ed)
1991 Creating Environments for Effective
Adult Learning (New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, No. 50).
Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, California (available electronically)
Hiemstra, R, Brockett, R. G. (eds) 1994 Overcoming
Resistance to Self-Direction in Adult Learning (New Directions for Adult and
Continuing Education, No. 64). Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco,
California (available
electronically)
Hiemstra, R, Sisco, B 1990 Individualizing Instruction: Making Learning
Personal, Empowering, and Successful. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San
Francisco, California
Houle, C O 1961 The Inquiring Mind. The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison,
Wisconsin
Knowles, M S 1975 Self-directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers.
Cambridge Book Co., New York
Knowles, M S & Associates 1984 Andragogy in Action. Jossey-Bass
Publishers, San Francisco, California
Long, H B 1989 Self-directed learning:
Emerging theory and practice. In: Long, H B and Associates 1989 Self-directed Learning: Emerging Theory
& Practice. Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional and
Higher Education, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma
Merriam, S B, Caffarella, R S 1991 Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide.
Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, California
Ravid, G 1987 Self-directed learning in industry. In: Marsick, V J (ed) 1987 Learning in the Workplace. Croom Helm, London, UK
Ruvinsky, L I 1986 Activeness
and self-education (J. Sayer, Trans.). Progress
Publishers, Moscow
Smiles, S 1859 Self Help. John Murray, London, UK
Smith, R M and Associates 1990 Learning to Learn Across the Life Span.
Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, California
Spear, G E, Mocker, D W 1984 The organizing
circumstance: Environmental determinants in self-directed learning. Adult Education Quarterly, 35: 1-10
Tough, A 1979 The Adult's Learning Projects: A Fresh Approach to Theory and Practice
in Adult Learning, 2nd edn. University Associates
(Learning Concepts), San Diego, and Ontario Institute for Studies in Education,
Toronto, Ontario
Suggested
Further Reading
Confessore, G J, Confessore, S J (eds) 1992 Guideposts
to Self-directed Learning. Organization Design and Development, Inc., 2002
Renaissance Blvd., Suite 100, King of Prussia, Pennsylvania
Long, H B and Associates 1990 Advances in Research and Practice in
Self-directed Learning. Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing
Professional and Higher Education, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma
Long, H B and Associates 1991 Self-directed Learning: Consensus &
Conflict. Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional and Higher
Education, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma
Long, H B, Terrence, R R
1991 Self-directed Learning Dissertation
Abstracts 1966-1991. Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional
and Higher Education, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma