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A MODEL FOR LEARNING RESOURCE NETWORKS
FOR SENIOR ADULTS
Patricia Harper Apt
Roger Hiemstra
Educational Gerontology, 5: 163-173, 1980
Copyright © by Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, A Taylor and Francis Journal.
Reprinted by Permission of the Journal’s editor
Stylistically, the article has been converted to APA, 5th
Edition.
One way to combat the national tendency to ignore and neglect senior adults
is to develop educational programs that specifically assist them in meeting
their needs and expanding their interests. Thus, a model for learning resource
networks is being proposed that
(1) involves senior adults
as resource people and permits them to plan their own educational programs,
(2) takes advantage of their
previous experience and knowledge, (3)
assists them in better utilizing
existing learning resources, (4)
does not lock senior adults into
a fixed time schedule or
location, and (5)
allows senior adults to pursue their
interests.
INTRODUCTION
There is an increased and growing need for more educational opportunities
for senior adults. Recent studies by Havighurst (1972), Hiemstra (1975),
and others confirm this statement. The 1971 White House Conference on Aging
recognized this need and reported:
Education is a basic right of all persons
of all age groups. It is one of the ways of enabling older people to have
a full and meaningful life and a means of helping them develop their potential
as a resource for the betterment of society. (p. 6)
Additionally, it appears that the need for educational opportunities for
the elderly will only become more pressing in the coming years. The percentage
of senior adults has grown consistently throughout this century; if present
population projections are accurate, by the year 2000 roughly 20% of the
population in the United States will be 65 years of age or older. Thus, with
the expanding number of senior adults, the need for providing a great number
of educational opportunities will also increase.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Education for the elderly was not a particularly important issue for many
years because it was assumed that the elderly (that is, people
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over 60) (1) were not interested in education and
(2) because of the infirmities of age were not able to learn very effectively.
Recent research has disproved these two assumptions.
The elderly are interested in participating in educational activities.
Independent research by Coolican (1974), Hiemstra (1975), and Tough (1971)
demonstrate that considerable learning activity is occurring among these
adults. Hiemstra found in his study that the senior adults interviewed were
spending an average of 325 hours per year in learning activities (1975, p.
56).
The notion that senior adults generally are deficient in learning ability
also appears not to be true. A series of studies in the 1930s and 1940s looking
at performance by different people on the same test did show some decline
in performance by age. The more recent longitudinal studies, however, have
failed to substantiate this finding. In fact, some incidents of improved
learning ability with age have been reported. A U.S. Army Alpha Intelligence
Test administered to college freshmen was again given to these same people
at two different times later in their life.
At age 50 the subjects showed a slight gain
over their performance as freshmen, and at 61, in general, they maintained
the level they had attained at 50 with a decline only in tests of numerical
ability. (Havelock, 1973, p. 29)
A review of research conducted by Jacobs, Mason, and Kaufman (1970) also
stresses the point that learning ability does not necessarily decline with
age:
A number of studies, both cross-sectional
and longitudinal have turned up convincing evidence that full mental ability
is often retained in late old age, and that many of the so-called "senile
symptoms" are remedial rather than representing an irreversible organic state.
(p. 10)
The implications from these research findings are clear: senior adults are learning, they want to learn more, and they are capable of learning effectively. The findings challenge both the stereotypical notions of the elderly and the doubts concerning the efficacy of education for the elderly. But perhaps an even more important finding is the discovery of the cultural, social and psychological impact of depriving the elderly of educational and other activities. What does it mean to elderly people when society dictates that they stop working, stop learning, and cease being active? Jacobs, Mason, and Kaufman (1970) have recently addressed some comments on this issue:
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Although it has been well established that
individuals are not deprived of learning ability simply because of advancing
age, they are beset by a cultural milieu, which as Larson and others have
pointed out, imposes a many faceted and insidious pattern of discrimination
upon elders in our midst, including economic, cultural, social, educational
and even medical aspects. The psychological damage to older adults is
unmistakable since it tends to categorize them as "second class citizens"
and thus to undermine their earlier convictions concerning ability to learn,
sense of personal integrity and worth and potential as producers of social
values. (p. 14)
Increasingly, a number of formal educational programs are being developed
to meet the need for more educational activities for the elderly. These programs
encompass courses in preretirement, cultural
enrichment, vocational education and use of leisure time. Many of these programs
meet in regular classrooms and employ lecture-type teaching techniques, but
many senior adults are greatly encumbered by the requirements of formal
educational experiences. The structure of the classroom, the way in which
courses are taught and the nature of the material may not be particularly
relevant to the interest and experiences of senior adults. In looking at
the practical limitations of formal educational agencies, Hiemstra (1972a)
has reported that the two greatest impediments to participation in adult
education activities for senior adults were transportation limitations and
a dislike of going out at night. It is interesting to note that these responses
were significantly greater than those to the statements "I am too old to
learn," and "I don't have enough energy or stamina."
Other methods must be sought to bring education to the elderly.
Hesburgh, Miller, and Wharton (1973), authors of
Patterns for Lifelong Learning, recognize the necessity to search
for alternatives:
The expansion of the idea of education into
a concept of lifelong human development is so pervasive that reliance on
traditional method is inefficient, making crucial a new mix of approaches
to family, school, corporation and community. (p. 52)
One alternative system is to take education out of the classroom and focus
it around the interests and needs of individual senior adults and to make
education available to a greater number of senior adults. This approach could
be particularly appropriate for the elderly because of the difficulty they
are likely to encounter attending regularly scheduled meetings. Also, an
individualized
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approach could be advantageous because it considers
the needs and interests of the individual, and it could build on the often
considerable experiences of elderly people.
The framework for such a learning network approach is found in the Illich
(1970) notion of "webs of learning networks." In
Deschooling Society (1970), Illich
describes the importance of establishing networks that would enable people
to learn whatever and wherever they desire. Technological advances such as
computer analysis and other systematic approaches to matching or relating
data sets are viewed by Illich as having tremendous possibilities for
deinstitutionalized education and for making education more relevant to people's
needs. Computerized learning networks could also have the advantage of freeing
education from a particular time schedule or classroom routine, and, as
previously discussed, these advantages are particularly important for the
elderly.
A major innovative prototype of learning networks is the Learning Exchange
in
The basic assumption underlying this model
is that in any given community there are people with a wide variety of skills
and interests which they would like to share with others. There are also
many people who would like to learn a variety of skills or develop their
interests, but they do not know where to find instruction for their particular
needs. What a community needs is some mechanism for bringing there [sic]
potential teachers, learners, and interest matches together. (p.
98)
The acceptance and success of the Learning Exchange augurs well for similar
programs, particularly a learning resources network which is designed to
meet the needs and interests of senior adults.
MODEL
Thus, a significant need exists for a model of learning resource networks
for senior adults, which (1) involves senior adults as resource people and
permits them to plan their own educational programs, (2) takes advantage
of their previous experience and knowledge, (3) assists them in better utilizing
existing learning
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adults will be presented. The process of the model
will be described in four phases: phase I-classification of available information
concerning human resources, activities, and other learning opportunities
within a community; phase II-development of information materials that will
assist senior adults to better use existing community resources; phase
III-linking senior adults with learning resources relevant to their needs
through a guidance and support system; and phase IV -evaluation of the learning
networks and their use.
Phase I:
Classification
In order to classify available human resources, activities, and other learning
responses within a community (Fig. 1) the following activities need to be
completed:
Activity 1--Classification of Human Resources
To classify senior adults within the community in terms of their skills,
interests, and abilities, a questionnaire can be developed to elicit the
following information: individual identification; interest in the project;
skills, interests, abilities; availability, and limitations to participation
(Borg & Gall, 1971). The questionnaire can then be mailed or delivered
to all senior citizens in the community. In the mailing or delivering, reference
can be made to both the phone number of a learning networks project staff
and larger group meetings as a means of personally answering senior adults'
questions. At these larger group meetings, held in cooperation
with
senior citizen clubs, churches, and other existing
organizations that serve senior adults, the project can be explained and
questions answered. Once the questionnaires have been returned, possible
resource persons can be personally contacted, and the project can be explained
in greater depth. Then the senior adults who wish to take part in the learning
network can be included.
Activity 2--Classification of Activities and Learning
Resources
To classify information about activities and other learning resources within
the community, the learning networks project staff will need to survey and
inventory existing community resources. This inventory should consist of
many and varied formal and informal educational experiences (Hiemstra, 1972b).
Examples of such resources are:
This task is obviously quite large. Criteria will need to be set up that
will help regulate the amount and type of information included in the system.
The materials and resources cataloged, however, can represent general categories
such as preretirement and retirement planning,
skill acquisition, liberal arts resources, leisure time activities, and
recreational activities.
Activity 3--Entering Information Collected into Computer
System
The information about the people, activities, and resources identified by
the surveys conducted in the first two activities described can then be entered
into a computer system. This system will need to be designed to allow quick
and easy access of the stored information. Each learning resource will need
to be indexed in several different ways. Information available for each entry
should include the number of people involved, location, time
availability
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that might assist senior adults in using the resources
(Grabowski, 1972). A printout of this information can be used by the project
staff to counsel interested senior adults on how their educational needs
might be met.
Phase II: Development of Materials
To develop information materials that assist senior adults in better using
existing learning resources, the project staff, in consultation with senior
adults and experts working with these older people, will need to identify
valuable learning resources that are available for senior adults (Fig. 2).
Appropriate guides to these resources can then he created (Rush,
1975).
Activity 1--Producing Learning Guides
Learning guides can be designed for any number of resources. For example,
senior adults can probably make better use of a historical society if they
know exactly what to ask for or how to find the information they need.
Additional guides to be developed will probably include those on the library,
art gallery, educational resources, and community government resources. The
learning guides should not only explain the organization of any group or
agency and what resources are available, but also mention any personnel who
could serve as sources of information.
The learning guides should be informative and characterized by informal
statements because one of the main purposes of these learning guides will
be to build up the confidence of senior adults.
Another consideration is that senior adults may have problems in either hearing
or seeing, therefore, learning guides will need to be available in complete
form in print or audio media. Tape guides
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Activity 2--Prototype Testing of Learning Guides
Each of the learning guides will need to be prototype-tested with a selected
sample of senior adults to ensure that the guides are readable, informative,
and enjoyable. Data on these testing sessions can be used to revise the learning
guides if necessary.
Phase III: Linking
To link senior adults with those learning resources relevant to their needs,
it is extremely important to develop an efficient and supportive delivery
system for the proposed learning resources information network (Staff Center
for the Study of Aging and Human Development, 1970). The research, extensive
surveying, and sophisticated technology that are all a part of this model
may not have any impact unless the senior adults feel comfortable in using
the network and find that it meets their needs. In order to ensure that the
network is accessible, appealing, and potentially useful to senior adults,
the following steps will need to be taken (Fig. 3).
Activity 1--Publicity and Coordination of the Networks
The learning networks will need to be widely publicized, not only through
mailing brochures and using the news media, but, perhaps
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more important, through existing institutions and
activities that currently serve senior adults. Organizations such as senior
citizen centers and senior adults' clubs should be visited by a member of
the project staff on a monthly basis to keep in touch with the learning needs
of these older adults and to publicize the activities available through the
learning networks (
Although there will have been much publicity of the learning networks during
phase I, the classification phase, publicity efforts will be intensified
prior to the opening of a learning center, which will be described in activity
2.
Activity 2--Use of Collected Information in a Learning-Counseling
Approach
Staffing and operation of a learning center A learning center will
need to be developed to utilize the collected information in a
learning-counseling approach. It should be regularly staffed by project
personnel, accessible by public transportation, and have at least two telephone
lines to permit quick access to the staff.
The learning center staff will need to be trained to assist these senior
learners in obtaining information from the learning network. In addition,
a professional counselor will need to be available for those learners who
wish to use her/his services. This counseling service can facilitate senior
learners' deciding how to best use the information obtained. For example,
a learner may be interested in updating her /his skills to begin a new career
or to find part-time work. In such a situation, the counselor may help the
learner not only to find needed occupational information but also to use
this information in motivational and adjustive
ways, thus facilitating greater self-clarification and appraisal of
opportunities, which could lead to the desired employment. The counseling
services, of course, need not be limited to occupational counseling but could
include all areas in which senior learners expressed interest in decision
making based on obtained information.
Evaluation of learning-counseling experiences It will be important
to learn the quality of the senior adult's learning-counseling experiences.
A questionnaire can be developed to learn what have been the senior adult's
major benefits and satisfactions and major dissatisfactions with the
learning-counseling services offered. This checking procedure will allow
the staff to modify the learning network resources and the counseling services
to better meet the needs of the users.
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Phase IV:
Evaluation
Although evaluation methods have been described under the various phases,
the steps will be outlined.
Activity 1--Evaluation of the Learning Networks
Evidence to be collected
Activity 2-Evaluation of the Use of the Learning
Networks
Evidence to be Collected
Activity 3-Evaluation Reporting and Dissemination
Data describing the development and outcomes of the learning networks will
need to be analyzed and described in a summary report, which will be disseminated
to relevant practitioners, researchers, and administrators under separate
cover and through professional journals.
REFERENCES
1971 White House Conference on Aging. (1973).
Toward a national policy on aging, vol.
II, Proceedings of the conference.
Borg, W. R., & Gall, M. (1971).
Educational research.
Coolican, P. (1974). Self-planned learning: Implications for the future
of adult education.
Grabowski, S. M. (1972). The role of the computer in adult
education. Adult Leadership,
21, 178-179.
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Havighurst, R. (1972). Developmental tasks and
education.
Hendrickson, A. & Barnes, R. F. (1967). Educational
needs of older persons. Adult Leadership,
2-4,
32.
Hesburgh,
T., Miller, P. A., & Wharton, C. (1973).
Patterns for lifelong learning.
Hiemstra, R. (1972a). Continuing education for the aged: A survey of needs
and interests of older people. Adult Education,
22, 100-109.
Hiemstra, R. (1972b)
The
educative community. Lincoln, NE.: Professional Education
Publications.
Hiemstra, R. (1975).
The
older adult and learning. Lincoln,
NE.:
Hiemstra, R. (1976).
Lifelong
learning.
Illich,
Jacobs, H. L., Mason, W. D., & Kaufman, E. (1970). Education for aging:
A review of recent literature.
McClusky, H. (1971, February). Education
(Background Paper for 1971 White House Conference on
Aging).
Rush, R. (1975). Communication channel selection
for reaching older persons. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the
Gerontological Society,
Squires, G. D. (1974). The learning exchange: An
innovation in adult education. Adult Leadership,
23, 98-99.
Staff of Center for the Study of Aging and Human Development
at
Tough, A. (1971). The adult's learning projects
(Research in Education Series No.1).
Created in February, 2005
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